tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8327841048579899042024-03-20T04:40:57.428-04:00MALAKIMoroccan History and Culture.Including Tamazight( Berber) Culture,Traditions, Ways of Life, People,The beauty of Tamazgha( Berber) Land The Beauty of Morocco.amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.comBlogger35125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-33502238173370969782021-10-02T13:03:00.001-04:002021-10-02T13:03:03.953-04:00لماذا نشات الحياة فوق الارض دون غيرها من الكواكب<p> https://youtu.be/vE6Z8ivvMuU</p>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-4780335251296145162015-12-19T00:19:00.001-05:002015-12-19T00:19:06.489-05:00Atlass: Tamazight Music( Berber Music) Morocco<a href="http://atlas-arganoil.blogspot.com/2011/03/tamazight-music-berber-music-morocco.html?spref=bl">Atlass: Tamazight Music( Berber Music) Morocco</a>: Musical/Vocal Styles Tabaamrante FATIMA Berber music is well-known for its use of folk oral traditions, as well as particular scal...amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-44747461404814775642011-03-12T20:00:00.000-05:002015-12-24T14:48:43.064-05:00How argan oil is made<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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100% Organic and Pure Moroccan Argan Oil Can be used on Face, Body , Hands and Nails .</div>
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-35479815498774797242011-03-12T15:59:00.000-05:002015-12-18T16:41:26.509-05:00Tamazight Music( Berber Music) Morocco<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Musical.2FVocal_Styles"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Musical/Vocal Styles</span></strong></span></div>
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Berber music is well-known for its use of folk oral traditions, as well as particular scales and rhythmic patterns, which include pentatonic music and African rhythms<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_music#cite_note-2"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[3]</span></a></sup>. All these tunes are combined together to form one of the main sources of entertainment in Berber social ceremonies like marriages, verses, tales and songs.</div>
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Berber vocal styles in Morocco consist of two main types. The first, called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahwash"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ahwash</span></a>, is exclusively village music, probably unchanged for centuries or longer. Ahwash texts emphasize the submission of the individual to the community. Typically, it consists of two large choruses engaging in call-and-response vocals, accompanied by instrumentalists and dancers. Since this music requires anywhere from 20 to 150 participants, it is not easily portable and so rarely heard in the cities. The second, called Raiss, is performed by smaller groups of professional musicians who blend dance, comedy, and sung poetry. Raiss songs tend to honor orthodox Islam, but with notable dashes of syncretist belief. In these songs, things like sacrifices and evil eyes are justified in terms of Islam. Instruments typically include the rebab, a one-stringed fiddle, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotar" title="Lotar"><span style="color: #0645ad;">lotar</span></a> lute, hand drums, and a bell. One notable feature of rwais (rais, singular) melodies is the way they leap up and down in large intervals<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_music#cite_note-3"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[4]</span></a></sup>.</div>
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The region of Kabylia in Algeria has a very large Berber population. Vocalists are usually accompanied by a rhythm section, consisting of t'bel (tambourine) and bendir (frame drum), and a melody section, consisting of a ghaita (bagpipe) and ajouag (flute).</div>
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The Berber music of the Tuareg region uses rhythms and vocal styles similar to the music of other Berbers and Arab music, while West African call-and-response-style singing is also common. In contrast to many of the region's peoples, among the Tuareg, music is mostly the domain of women, especially the imzhad, a string instrument like a violin. Tuareg weddings feature unique styles of music, such as the vocal trilling of women and special dances (ilkan) of slaves marking the occasion.</div>
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<strong><span style="color: blue;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Instrumentation">Instrumentation </span></span></strong></div>
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The Berber people are spread out over a large part of Africa, but seem to have a dense concentration within the North Western part of Africa. The people have a vast array of instruments, both melodic and percussive. The following instruments take part in the accompaniment in dance and song both secular, and sacred.</div>
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The <i>Qasabah</i> is an end-blown reed flute. Used mostly to accompany songs rather than dance, the <i>Qasabah</i> is said to have a rich, breathy texture.</div>
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The <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizwad" title="Mizwad"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mizwid</span></a></i> is like a set of bag-pipes seen in the western world. The word literally means bag or food pouch. It has a higher pitch than western bag-pipes, but is said to have a wider pitch range.</div>
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The <i>Zukrah</i> of Tunisia has a large role in societal performances along with the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhaita" title="Rhaita"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ghaytah</span></a></i> of Morocco. In both countries, these instruments are combined with several percussive instruments to create large ensembles which may perform at public festivals or such occasions.</div>
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The <i>Nafir</i> is a long and natural horn similar to the western trumpet. This instrument is used mostly as a signaling instrument to send out messages to large masses. Although it has some value in performances, it serves mainly this purpose.</div>
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The Moroccan <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintir" title="Sintir"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ginbri</span></a></i> is a stringed instrument without frets but rather a long neck. The box of the instrument is covered in skin, and is used in several varying occasions. Most ensembles have at least one <i>Ginbri</i>, although it is not always limited to one. In addition to the <i>Ginrbri</i>, is the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebab" title="Rebab"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rabab</span></a></i>, a long necked-fiddle with a large box which is covered in skin. This instrument has only one string made normally by horse hair. It is commonly used alongside the <i>Ginbri</i>, as the voice of the group.</div>
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In percussion, the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davul" title="Davul"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tabl</span></a></i> is a cylindrical double-sided drum. Although it has similar use and spelling to the <i>Tabla</i> of India, there is no direct correlation found between the two. The <i>Qas'ah</i> is a large shallow kettledrum found mostly in Tunisia. Similar to the <i>Qas'ah</i> is the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqareh" title="Naqareh"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Naqqarah</span></a></i>, two ceramic kettledrums played simultaneously by both hands.</div>
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In Moroccan Berber music, a series of snare frame-drums of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendir" title="Bendir"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Bandirs</span></a></i> may be played simultaneously. These provide the main percussive rhythm for Berber music as the above mentioned drums are more artistic than <i>Bandirs</i>.</div>
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Last, but not least, is the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krakebs" title="Krakebs"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Qaraqib</span></a></i>. This is a metal clacker which has resemblance of a castanets. There is one in each hand and may be used to mark rhythm or may also have its own type of melody.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_music#cite_note-4"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[5]</span></a></sup> </div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Morocco"> <strong><span style="color: blue;">Morocco</span></strong></span></div>
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Berbers are a solid majority of Morocco's population, but are nevertheless politically marginalized<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2008">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span style="color: #0645ad;">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Their most famous musical output is likely Ammouri Mbarek Singer and Song writer (Considered to be, the john lennon- Beatles in the Berber World, singing sense the early 1960s and now; Nekk dik a nmun (1978) Cd Album). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usman"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Usman</span></a> - Music Band 1960s and 1970s . <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najat_Aatabou"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Najat Aatabou</span></a>, a singer whose debut cassette, "J'en ai Marre", sold an unprecedented half a million copies in Morocco. Internationally, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Musicians_of_Jajouka" title="Master Musicians of Jajouka"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Master Musicians of Jajouka</span></a> are also well known, as a result of their collaboration with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Jones"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Brian Jones</span></a> of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stones" title="Rolling Stones"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rolling Stones</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_S._Burroughs"><span style="color: #0645ad;">William S. Burroughs</span></a>. Another recording group from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jajouka"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Jajouka</span></a> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Musicians_of_Joujouka"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Master Musicians of Joujouka</span></a>, formerly managed by the late painter <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Hamri"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mohamed Hamri</span></a>. In 2009 the first <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%27n%27B" title="R'n'B"><span style="color: #0645ad;">R'n'B</span></a> songs in a Berberian language were released by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Soultan"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ahmed Soultan</span></a> in his second album <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Code</span></a>.</div>
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<ul>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mohammad_Albansir&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mohammad Albansir (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Mohammad Albansir</span></a>'Damseri' Singer, Composer & Poet </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammouri_Mbarek"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ammouri Mbarek</span></a> Singer, Songwriter </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatima_Tabaamrant"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Fatima Tabaamrant</span></a> - singer, songwriter </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lhaj_Belaid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Lhaj Belaid (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Lhaj Belaid</span></a> - singer, songwriter, poet </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usman"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Usman</span></a> - Music Band 1960s and 1970s (They are considered to be like, the beatles in the Berber World. Ammouri Mbarek, Said Bijaaden, Tarik El-maarufi, Belaid el-Akkaf, Lyazid Qorfi, Said Butrufin) </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ali_Chouhad&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Ali Chouhad (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Ali Chouhad</span></a> - Singer, songwriter, Writer </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rkia_Demsir&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Rkia Demsir (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Rkia Demsir</span></a> - Singer </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omar_Ait_Ulahyan&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Omar Ait Ulahyan (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Omar Ait Ulahyan</span></a> - Singer </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najat_Aatabou"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Najat Aatabou</span></a> - singer </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fatima_Tachtoukt&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fatima Tachtoukt (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Fatima Tachtoukt</span></a> - singer </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuba"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Yuba</span></a> - singer </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cherifa&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Cherifa (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Cherifa</span></a> - singer </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Rouicha"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mohamed Rouicha</span></a> - singer </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sa%C3%AFda_Titrit&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Saïda Titrit (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Saïda Titrit</span></a> - singer </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mimoun_El_Walid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mimoun El Walid (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Mimoun El Walid</span></a> - singer </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Itran&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Itran (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Itran</span></a> - singer <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/UhLiu1j5a8Y?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
</li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khalid_Izri&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Khalid Izri (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Khalid Izri</span></a> - singer </li>
</ul>
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<span class="post-author vcard">Posted by <span class="fn">amoune</span> </span><span class="post-timestamp">at <a class="timestamp-link" href="http://atlas-arganoil.blogspot.com/2011/03/tamazight-music-berber-music-morocco.html" rel="bookmark" title="permanent link"><abbr class="published" title="2011-03-12T09:01:00-08:00"><span style="color: #7771bf;">9:01 AM</span></abbr></a> </span><span class="post-comment-link"></span><span class="post-icons"><span class="item-control blog-admin pid-2045313324"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=3684972891506206294&postID=7465732331855524377" title="Edit Post"><img alt="" class="icon-action" src="http://img2.blogblog.com/img/icon18_edit_allbkg.gif" height="18" width="18" /><span style="color: #7771bf;"> </span></a></span></span><br />
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<span class="post-labels">Labels: <a href="http://atlas-arganoil.blogspot.com/search/label/Berber%20culture%28%20Tamazighte%29" rel="tag"><span style="color: #48cbda;">Berber culture( Tamazighte)</span></a> </span></div>
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<span id="blog-pager-older-link"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Musical / Vocal Styles</span></strong></span></div>
Berber music is well-known for its use of folk oral traditions, as well as particular scales and rhythmic patterns, which include pentatonic music and African rhythms<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_music#cite_note-2"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[3]</span></a></sup>. All these tunes are combined together to form one of the main sources of entertainment in Berber social ceremonies like marriages, verses, tales and songs.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1gS9BzlRdZ0n3y3T69uVtWVoPsp_iDQzbXrNi8t3WGRs0XcH_pklPeQoeeEYrPN73NjJ2fLlElaNu1ZcZzoSLQRvpjMKcGLFFsJtf7pEumZx37EQVMvoBY3s8b7dvEbwNDC8A5U6jzlEu/s1600/rebab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1gS9BzlRdZ0n3y3T69uVtWVoPsp_iDQzbXrNi8t3WGRs0XcH_pklPeQoeeEYrPN73NjJ2fLlElaNu1ZcZzoSLQRvpjMKcGLFFsJtf7pEumZx37EQVMvoBY3s8b7dvEbwNDC8A5U6jzlEu/s1600/rebab.jpg" /></a></div>
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Berber vocal styles in Morocco consist of two main types. The first, called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahwash"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ahwash</span></a>, is exclusively village music, probably unchanged for centuries or longer. Ahwash texts emphasize the submission of the individual to the community. Typically, it consists of two large choruses engaging in call-and-response vocals, accompanied by instrumentalists and dancers. Since this music requires anywhere from 20 to 150 participants, it is not easily portable and so rarely heard in the cities. The second, called Raiss, is performed by smaller groups of professional musicians who blend dance, comedy, and sung poetry. Raiss songs tend to honor orthodox Islam, but with notable dashes of syncretist belief. In these songs, things like sacrifices and evil eyes are justified in terms of Islam. Instruments typically include the rebab, a one-stringed fiddle, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotar" title="Lotar"><span style="color: #0645ad;">lotar</span></a> lute, hand drums, and a bell. One notable feature of rwais (rais, singular) melodies is the way they leap up and down in large intervals<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_music#cite_note-3"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[4]</span></a></sup>.</div>
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The region of Kabylia in Algeria has a very large Berber population. Vocalists are usually accompanied by a rhythm section, consisting of t'bel (tambourine) and bendir (frame drum), and a melody section, consisting of a ghaita (bagpipe) and ajouag (flute).</div>
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The Berber music of the Tuareg region uses rhythms and vocal styles similar to the music of other Berbers and Arab music, while West African call-and-response-style singing is also common. In contrast to many of the region's peoples, among the Tuareg, music is mostly the domain of women, especially the imzhad, a string instrument like a violin. Tuareg weddings feature unique styles of music, such as the vocal trilling of women and special dances (ilkan) of slaves marking the occasion.</div>
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<strong><span style="color: blue;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Instrumentation">Instrumentation </span></span></strong></div>
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The Berber people are spread out over a large part of Africa, but seem to have a dense concentration within the North Western part of Africa. The people have a vast array of instruments, both melodic and percussive. The following instruments take part in the accompaniment in dance and song both secular, and sacred.</div>
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The <i>Qasabah</i> is an end-blown reed flute. Used mostly to accompany songs rather than dance, the <i>Qasabah</i> is said to have a rich, breathy texture.</div>
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The <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizwad" title="Mizwad"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mizwid</span></a></i> is like a set of bag-pipes seen in the western world. The word literally means bag or food pouch. It has a higher pitch than western bag-pipes, but is said to have a wider pitch range. <br />
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The <i>Zukrah</i> of Tunisia has a large role in societal performances along with the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhaita" title="Rhaita"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ghaytah</span></a></i> of Morocco. In both countries, these instruments are combined with several percussive instruments to create large ensembles which may perform at public festivals or such occasions.</div>
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The <i>Nafir</i> is a long and natural horn similar to the western trumpet. This instrument is used mostly as a signaling instrument to send out messages to large masses. Although it has some value in performances, it serves mainly this purpose.</div>
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The Moroccan <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintir" title="Sintir"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ginbri</span></a></i> is a stringed instrument without frets but rather a long neck. The box of the instrument is covered in skin, and is used in several varying occasions. Most ensembles have at least one <i>Ginbri</i>, although it is not always limited to one. In addition to the <i>Ginrbri</i>, is the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebab" title="Rebab"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rabab</span></a></i>, a long necked-fiddle with a large box which is covered in skin. This instrument has only one string made normally by horse hair. It is commonly used alongside the <i>Ginbri</i>, as the voice of the group.</div>
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In percussion, the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davul" title="Davul"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tabl</span></a></i> is a cylindrical double-sided drum. Although it has similar use and spelling to the <i>Tabla</i> of India, there is no direct correlation found between the two. The <i>Qas'ah</i> is a large shallow kettledrum found mostly in Tunisia. Similar to the <i>Qas'ah</i> is the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqareh" title="Naqareh"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Naqqarah</span></a></i>, two ceramic kettledrums played simultaneously by both hands.</div>
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In Moroccan Berber music, a series of snare frame-drums of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendir" title="Bendir"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Bandirs</span></a></i> may be played simultaneously. These provide the main percussive rhythm for Berber music as the above mentioned drums are more artistic than <i>Bandirs</i>.</div>
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Last, but not least, is the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krakebs" title="Krakebs"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Qaraqib</span></a></i>. This is a metal clacker which has resemblance of a castanets. There is one in each hand and may be used to mark rhythm or may also have its own type of melody.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_music#cite_note-4"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[5]</span></a></sup> </div>
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Morocco</div>
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Berbers are a solid majority of Morocco's population, but are nevertheless politically marginalized<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2008">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span style="color: #0645ad;">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Their most famous musical output is likely Ammouri Mbarek Singer and Song writer (Considered to be, the john lennon- Beatles in the Berber World, singing sense the early 1960s and now; Nekk dik a nmun (1978) Cd Album). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usman"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Usman</span></a> - Music Band 1960s and 1970s . <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najat_Aatabou"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Najat Aatabou</span></a>, a singer whose debut cassette, "J'en ai Marre", sold an unprecedented half a million copies in Morocco. Internationally, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Musicians_of_Jajouka" title="Master Musicians of Jajouka"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Master Musicians of Jajouka</span></a> are also well known, as a result of their collaboration with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Jones"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Brian Jones</span></a> of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stones" title="Rolling Stones"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rolling Stones</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_S._Burroughs"><span style="color: #0645ad;">William S. Burroughs</span></a>. Another recording group from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jajouka"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Jajouka</span></a> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Musicians_of_Joujouka"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Master Musicians of Joujouka</span></a>, formerly managed by the late painter <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Hamri"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mohamed Hamri</span></a>. In 2009 the first <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%27n%27B" title="R'n'B"><span style="color: #0645ad;">R'n'B</span></a> songs in a Berberian language were released by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Soultan"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ahmed Soultan</span></a> in his second album <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Code</span></a>.</div>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mohammad_Albansir&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mohammad Albansir (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Mohammad Albansir</span></a>'Damseri' Singer, Composer & Poet </li>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammouri_Mbarek"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ammouri Mbarek</span></a> Singer, Songwriter </li>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatima_Tabaamrant"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Fatima Tabaamrant</span></a> - singer, songwriter </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lhaj_Belaid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Lhaj Belaid (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Lhaj Belaid</span></a> - singer, songwriter, poet </li>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usman"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Usman</span></a> - Music Band 1960s and 1970s (They are considered to be like, the beatles in the Berber World. Ammouri Mbarek, Said Bijaaden, Tarik El-maarufi, Belaid el-Akkaf, Lyazid Qorfi, Said Butrufin) </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ali_Chouhad&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Ali Chouhad (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Ali Chouhad</span></a> - Singer, songwriter, Writer </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rkia_Demsir&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Rkia Demsir (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Rkia Demsir</span></a> - Singer </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omar_Ait_Ulahyan&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Omar Ait Ulahyan (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Omar Ait Ulahyan</span></a> - Singer </li>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najat_Aatabou"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Najat Aatabou</span></a> - singer </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fatima_Tachtoukt&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fatima Tachtoukt (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Fatima Tachtoukt</span></a> - singer </li>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuba"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Yuba</span></a> - singer </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cherifa&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Cherifa (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Cherifa</span></a> - singer </li>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Rouicha"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mohamed Rouicha</span></a> - singer </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sa%C3%AFda_Titrit&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Saïda Titrit (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Saïda Titrit</span></a> - singer </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mimoun_El_Walid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mimoun El Walid (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Mimoun El Walid</span></a> - singer </li>
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<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Itran&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Itran (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Itran</span></a> - singer </li>
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-34320480830479747812011-03-08T20:42:00.000-05:002015-12-25T03:42:49.627-05:00Tamazight A surviving Language in Berber Land<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: blue;">Unesco-</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVU_lcvKQ1VoG6ykZJ4uQK35fTL2br8ngyFPORP4CPI5u5IZqmu_6maiblT8xJ41GjT0D3_sRwFsBAODJpcFwWr5Ga27hp9wQq1umigA4hQu3BUe7HePZPvdTtOuLFIrUej7pzxIYo0M-K/s1600/alphabet_tifinagh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="color: blue;"><img border="0" height="320" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVU_lcvKQ1VoG6ykZJ4uQK35fTL2br8ngyFPORP4CPI5u5IZqmu_6maiblT8xJ41GjT0D3_sRwFsBAODJpcFwWr5Ga27hp9wQq1umigA4hQu3BUe7HePZPvdTtOuLFIrUej7pzxIYo0M-K/s320/alphabet_tifinagh.jpg" width="254" /></span></a><span style="color: blue;">Tamazight Language-Uncertain</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "tahoma"; font-size: x-small;"> <strong>group of experts working for UNESCO have just finished a study dealing with the issue of the longevity of languages of the world. The study revealed an astonishing truth. Of the estimated 7,000 languages spoken in the world today, linguists say, nearly half are in danger of extinction and likely to disappear in this century. In fact, one falls out of use about every two weeks.<br />
It was in 1987 that UNESCO initiated an international programme, whose aim is to identify and record endangered languages and using language education in general, and language teaching in particular, as a means of promoting increased understanding between nations "peace through language diversity and plurilingualism ".<br />
<br />
The research, reported in the study of UNISCO was based on field research and data analysis. It says that "more than half the languages had no written form and were vulnerable to loss and being forgotten"; their loss leaves no dictionary, no text, and no record of the accumulated knowledge and history of a vanished culture. In Australia, nearly all the 400 spoken and written languages are endangered and its number is lowering to 25 currently. Cameron and Niger are quoted as case of African countries where languages completely disappeared from the spoken and written field in the last decade.<br />
<br />
The thorough study of UNESCO showed that any language spoken by more than one million of speakers has a life expectancy going to 50 year and more depend on its regular feasibility and applicability. The experts did not limit themselves to the linguistic poverty or the scientific character as the unique reasons to explain these disappearances, the political reasons are also put forward because these last factors would accelerate the disappearance of languages phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Concerning Amazigh language, the study classified it as endangered language . The study included the fact that "Tamazight, and all its major varieties extending over North-Africa, have a whole provisional existence thus vulnerable and threatened of extinction". Although Amazigh language is spoken by millions, but the cultural production and its diffusion is still linked to the political considerations based on austerity and social ostracism imposed by the global Pan-Arabic regimes which stand in the way of its evolution. This is the reason why Amazigh language in North-Africa facing an unrelentingly cruel process of deterioration. Even if some of our intellectuals are seriously leaning on the problem, and made every effort to elaborate new theories and sufficient pedagogical tools for the promotion of the written usage of Tamazight.<br />
<br />
Another measure of the threat to many relativley unknown languages, is that 83 languages with "global" influence are spoken and written by 80 percent of the world population. Most of the others face extinction at a rate, the researchers said, that exceeds that of birds, mammals, fish and plants.<br />
<br />
I ideas moclearly recognise that these ve directly to the call for research in the Amazigh field. But rather than simply a call for more research, they call for better research and for more coordination of efforts. In a larger respect, they ask of our research more of our efforts.</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "tahoma"; font-size: 13px;"> Writen By: <strong><em>Sabri EL HAMMAOUI</em></strong> </span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaAWGl_z1ATGtQtj25-Vf7lZpxr_7qJewkkyCb1VpfnsNww_Ta2JbvX0bTM7tpfKFf15nbC1Wvret52UOSD5x9YIZ5UDsfTUeVZTDSZhNUHn2OBAgELdz0ksn0TaQcQKtXDEnHWX7oaccN/s1600/Do+not+forget+your+language..gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaAWGl_z1ATGtQtj25-Vf7lZpxr_7qJewkkyCb1VpfnsNww_Ta2JbvX0bTM7tpfKFf15nbC1Wvret52UOSD5x9YIZ5UDsfTUeVZTDSZhNUHn2OBAgELdz0ksn0TaQcQKtXDEnHWX7oaccN/s1600/Do+not+forget+your+language..gif" /></a><span style="color: blue;">DO NOT FORGET YOUR LANGUAGE</span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"> <a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></span><br />
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-40509621071904436582011-03-08T20:23:00.000-05:002015-12-19T00:31:57.477-05:00Unesco-Amazigh-Language-uncertain.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="background-color: white; color: blue;">Tamazight : A surviving language in berber Land</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZLOEGPm3x881SXvXtG9MndHQYZdSgi0ogJqHshf8OH1oSSTBRQfU9h-13GRFn9UnFhIE35_zD2PwVoAn5oaQ0h918N7D9ycHbbw76IsbM8ezfi9oySvetr2u02hKAguM8gJePoLPdyt-n/s1600/tamazight+flag.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="background-color: white;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZLOEGPm3x881SXvXtG9MndHQYZdSgi0ogJqHshf8OH1oSSTBRQfU9h-13GRFn9UnFhIE35_zD2PwVoAn5oaQ0h918N7D9ycHbbw76IsbM8ezfi9oySvetr2u02hKAguM8gJePoLPdyt-n/s1600/tamazight+flag.jpg" /></span></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "tahoma"; font-size: 13px;">A group of experts working for UNESCO have just finished a study dealing with the issue of the longevity of languages of the world. The study revealed an astonishing truth. Of the estimated 7,000 languages spoken in the world today, linguists say, nearly half are in danger of extinction and likely to disappear in this century. In fact, one falls out of use about every two weeks.<br />
It was in 1987 that UNESCO initiated an international programme, whose aim is to identify and record endangered languages and using language education in general, and language teaching in particular, as a means of promoting increased understanding between nations "peace through language diversity and plurilingualism ".<br />
<br />
The research, reported in the study of UNISCO was based on field research and data analysis. It says that "more than half the languages had no written form and were vulnerable to loss and being forgotten"; their loss leaves no dictionary, no text, and no record of the accumulated knowledge and history of a vanished culture. In Australia, nearly all the 400 spoken and written languages are endangered and its number is lowering to 25 currently. Cameron and Niger are quoted as case of African countries where languages completely disappeared from the spoken and written field in the last decade.<br />
<br />
The thorough study of UNESCO showed that any language spoken by more than one million of speakers has a life expectancy going to 50 year and more depend on its regular feasibility and applicability. The experts did not limit themselves to the linguistic poverty or the scientific character as the unique reasons to explain these disappearances, the political reasons are also put forward because these last factors would accelerate the disappearance of languages phenomenon.<br /><a href="http://www.riseclix.com/?ref=Agadiri70" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="http://www.riseclix.com/banner1.gif" height="90" width="728" /></a>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhodQevfVpP8G0FFnnaUL1utSZK7aB9JQ0b3t7IMfKGB9xO2F61-ol2cMDLZ2YH6THf13Xoa9Jepj5l0d5FKsO_xW66CN3uKay_jxAmx_y2UOaKfA4FpcfzhUhhxrZo6pEc_WG7lusT9Owv/s1600/untitled.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhodQevfVpP8G0FFnnaUL1utSZK7aB9JQ0b3t7IMfKGB9xO2F61-ol2cMDLZ2YH6THf13Xoa9Jepj5l0d5FKsO_xW66CN3uKay_jxAmx_y2UOaKfA4FpcfzhUhhxrZo6pEc_WG7lusT9Owv/s1600/untitled.bmp" /></a>Concerning Amazigh language, the study classified it as endangered language . The study included the fact that "Tamazight, and all its major varieties extending over North-Africa, have a whole provisional existence thus vulnerable and threatened of extinction". Although Amazigh language is spoken by millions, but the cultural production and its diffusion is still linked to the political considerations based on austerity and social ostracism imposed by the global Pan-Arabic regimes which stand in the way of its evolution. This is the reason why Amazigh language in North-Africa facing an unrelentingly cruel process of deterioration. Even if some of our intellectuals are seriously leaning on the problem, and made every effort to elaborate new theories and sufficient pedagogical tools for the promotion of the written usage of Tamazight.<br />
<br />
Another measure of the threat to many relativley unknown languages, is that 83 languages with "global" influence are spoken and written by 80 percent of the world population. Most of the others face extinction at a rate, the researchers said, that exceeds that of birds, mammals, fish and plants.<br />
<br />
ideas moclearly recognise that these ve directly to the call for research in the Amazigh field. But rather than simply a call for more research, they call for better research and for more coordination of efforts. In a larger respect, they ask of our research more of our efforts.<br />
<br />
<strong><em><span style="color: blue;">DO NOT FORGET YOUR LANGUAGE wr</span>itten by Sabri EL HAMMAOUI</em></strong> </span></div>
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-81590317571130900872011-03-08T19:58:00.000-05:002011-03-09T08:32:59.198-05:00Izenzaren a lgendary Berber musical Band( biography and beautyful songs<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/Su0k4NYQBwc?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div><h2 class="titre2">Biography of Izenzaren</h2><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/K9cseEYr0UE?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div> I zenzaren is a Moroccan Amazigh band founded in 1972 by six musicians.<br />
Izenzaren has devoted its music to express Amazigh culture and thoughts. In 1976, Izenzaren made his first appearance on the silver screen. One year later, it gave an astonishing concert on the prestigious stage of the Parisian Olympia and then before the public of the Festival of the Maghrebian song. <br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/gPZvAu0lDHA?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/DxosJrg4GBY?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>Izenzaren is still present in the musical scene compeering numerous festivals and cultural gatherings in Morocco and in other countries. A variety of topics can be found in their songs such as people s daily strugle especially in rural areas,a beautiful song about MOTHER( The first one on top of the page) Tackling sone implicit political and social issues in Berber land( Morocco).<br />
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<a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a><br />
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</div></div>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-41629936768578075432011-03-07T20:52:00.000-05:002015-12-18T16:40:09.295-05:00BERBER LAND<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxZBEtBSwX68mI5eiJYkovETmggk8KW00UmFuLtU-FajNjYolexQAO9Z5jHRd_Mxm7W7KBuHa3aU9t-aBY7z2inF3Z6TwxMUIYfhgksC9zrpRE17mPKNi67IMG4gCCp8uL6jFgdMg0lf3x/s1600/Dunewalker%255B1%255D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxZBEtBSwX68mI5eiJYkovETmggk8KW00UmFuLtU-FajNjYolexQAO9Z5jHRd_Mxm7W7KBuHa3aU9t-aBY7z2inF3Z6TwxMUIYfhgksC9zrpRE17mPKNi67IMG4gCCp8uL6jFgdMg0lf3x/s1600/Dunewalker%255B1%255D.jpg" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibWRzDco5dVdU963WN9433SvB9BgpVre-6vnXWPHjJPRTjWLp_yFWe3JO5DmfH4nYcHLECWMg2Cmm6tOjA16uLVFHD7V8fzoFHqFGHt27y1wttdYbKz_8hV_cGJrytroAQBvj9vLrOtCoX/s1600/adobe-4475.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibWRzDco5dVdU963WN9433SvB9BgpVre-6vnXWPHjJPRTjWLp_yFWe3JO5DmfH4nYcHLECWMg2Cmm6tOjA16uLVFHD7V8fzoFHqFGHt27y1wttdYbKz_8hV_cGJrytroAQBvj9vLrOtCoX/s320/adobe-4475.jpg" width="233" /></a> <span style="color: blue;">Berber Land</span> Old Berber Man, are often wise giving advice concerning everyday life details activities concerns. They are experts in agriculture and are able to explain ups and downs of crops and thousands of years ago they already did elaborate rules to organise water with an underground irrigation system. They could smell rain and predicate storms and dryness. They have the intuition of foretelling some coming events by relying on some hints data, conditions. As well as being able to fix new rules or changed already existing rules to cope with new community features and demonstrations. They are doctors by instinct and can describe the pain and the traditional medicines plants, as well as treatment by acupuncture, fire, massage, or sand shower in hot sand of desert. Coming to culture, old rituals are only found in their memories; special rare proverbs are stored in their mind used only in suitable cases, situations. Their words are only verses well balanced of poetry, rich in symbolism, comparison, values... When arguing, talking with them, they don't look much at your eyes, face, their eyes are travelling away in time, in their memories, cheeking between pages of their experiences. As if they are meditating, they stir away, often in the sky around, drawing their paths in life between clouds, images of regret for plans they failed to put in practice and hopes/dreams they wish live through their new generations who often they criticize and look down for not been able to add more value to their current world .They wish them add new blood to their life, bridge new stone to plans, worlds they did not manage to reach when they are masters of their age, energy. They are sure then that golden age is something that each generation can pretend. They are sure and convinced that this time is not their own and that each generation has its time, conditions, dreams, obstacles, thoughts ...philosophy. They boast that they travelled on foot thousand kilometres to the middle East, fought and won many wars over enemies conquering Tamazgha or North Africa, flirted many ladies, girls with well balanced verses of Ahidus, Timnadin (Famous dances, ritual rhythms in South East of Morocco… ...While current generation react that they just had been at school and learned Arabic, got access to internet to explore the world around, while losing their own language. They have new adventures, riding big waves of seas and oceans to leave their home land, while other younger are living fine in North Africa. Often they do join others lands doing bad stuff and become victims of racism... Young Man accuse Old Ones that they were very generous and innocent that they have been occupied by arabe ideology for many years .They even wonder why they should let them stay after that they had been converted to Islam religion. Yet Old Men react that they led wars against enemies during World War II against French, Spanish armies assisted by Moroccan political elite and Makhzen, central power at that time... They, Old Men, boast that they found out about many things, architecture, irrigation, tribal rules, norms...while, in their point of view, Young Men did not add any new value, idea to the current Berber philosophy. But Old Men have to confess that Young Men led a cultural movement to change their world marginalised by panarabe government, by feeding society with manifestations, associations, artistic creations... Generation conflict as it seems to be, but Berber society indeed is in need to both generations to keep the cultural heritage alive, and strengthen the future of Berbers coming tomorrow. Berbers are facing many challenges such as getting their universal rights to stay and keep different, to teach their language, to have their own TV, to stop arabisation, to name their babies Berber names, to get politic, social economic rights! Rights which won't be gotten unless efforts of all Berbers come together. The world now ignores their rights. International Organisations are no more independent and never were, since they follow oil energy and dollars, the same as their government do.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1INxH3QZwttFsot_LqWdi36erCHhsYYmRVbqt5jtYGFqcACYH4n31whGKb1w8xWzHwVfMs7hsIgaGzoDW3bDQkvRSes4NTml1VH4FLbk6FgNGuJxGygUXYWSnMuoRbElvsYYRDBZ-I7YN/s1600/adobe-4459.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1INxH3QZwttFsot_LqWdi36erCHhsYYmRVbqt5jtYGFqcACYH4n31whGKb1w8xWzHwVfMs7hsIgaGzoDW3bDQkvRSes4NTml1VH4FLbk6FgNGuJxGygUXYWSnMuoRbElvsYYRDBZ-I7YN/s320/adobe-4459.jpg" width="320" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgS5TB1uE306WHoFXcgm3yCGm8CzVaBdvF1iuAoyu50qiuA6AiksQqSv67R6eAVDfHyu1P8FWxXpzl5BBqRSlUTkXk0Cll4UfuMGCVo8v-d4wH0hsIW3I34-6wpGAnSitg5kDnmqwVCEIHR/s1600/ait-01.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgS5TB1uE306WHoFXcgm3yCGm8CzVaBdvF1iuAoyu50qiuA6AiksQqSv67R6eAVDfHyu1P8FWxXpzl5BBqRSlUTkXk0Cll4UfuMGCVo8v-d4wH0hsIW3I34-6wpGAnSitg5kDnmqwVCEIHR/s1600/ait-01.jpg" /></a><br />
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-76530455377509788092011-03-07T20:01:00.000-05:002011-03-07T20:01:39.985-05:00Carfree Medina( ancient City) Fes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZvZMFQIWq23jnKFodwZhND-LNj-MQN5NPGk-quKg1zYIqI6KP9tXEG4MBBG_Fs2SCvlkyMZe_-jKH4Fdy7ijMShl5rql-S_olB3OrJAv73P0X4r3oypDsEWZT6xHtXLP1b8pomzqszQss/s1600/250px-Blue_Gate_in_Fes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZvZMFQIWq23jnKFodwZhND-LNj-MQN5NPGk-quKg1zYIqI6KP9tXEG4MBBG_Fs2SCvlkyMZe_-jKH4Fdy7ijMShl5rql-S_olB3OrJAv73P0X4r3oypDsEWZT6xHtXLP1b8pomzqszQss/s1600/250px-Blue_Gate_in_Fes.jpg" /></a></div><h3>The Moroccan Medina</h3>Most of the cities in Morocco have preserved at least portions of their medieval medinas. The streets in these areas are very narrow, and they are, for practical reasons, substantially carfree, although not always motorcycle-free. In early January 2002, I was fortunate to be able to participate in a workgroup studying the medina of Fes-al-Bali, believed to be the largest contiguous carfree area in the world, qua population. (Venice may be slightly larger in land area.) Our experiences and my photographs are the subject of these pages. The circumstances of the medina at Fes-al-Bali typify the other medinas, and since Fes-al-Bali is larger than the others, we will take it as a case illustration with respect to the pleasures and difficulties of life in a medieval carfree area. <br />
It is worth mention that many cities in Morocco have "Ville Nouvelle" districts, built during the French occupation. The new parts of the city are often similar to the older parts in size and population. The new areas were built in the post-Haussmann era of French planning, which saw wide, straight boulevards and large block replace the tangled medieval practice of narrow, crooked streets. <span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0">The new parts of Moroccan cities are almost as overrun with cars and</span></span> motorcycles as their counterparts in the rest of the world, but the medinas remain an oasis of peace in a world that has become noisy, smelly, and dangerous. <br />
<h3>The Medina of Fes-al-Bali<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgt2Ddwsef4rQMe1b4BCRDOowzKt7ezkOCUb6765oNnoOKedMw84N1h-O7vNkgi_ZCZgbuKIRYPlAMVKNgY2uHycSCPDmvCLhbAtYUyGVBebPUC7BtCcF0pS3E7fYYcwCM3EXSiKKqzPOiP/s1600/imagesCAETLA2H.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgt2Ddwsef4rQMe1b4BCRDOowzKt7ezkOCUb6765oNnoOKedMw84N1h-O7vNkgi_ZCZgbuKIRYPlAMVKNgY2uHycSCPDmvCLhbAtYUyGVBebPUC7BtCcF0pS3E7fYYcwCM3EXSiKKqzPOiP/s1600/imagesCAETLA2H.jpg" /></a></h3><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-1"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-1">Fes-al-Bali, the larger of the two medinas of Fes, is a nearly intact medieval city.</span></span> With a 2002 population of 156,000, it is probably the largest contiguous carfree area in the world today. In January of 2002, several like-minded friends and I spent five days in Fes during the course of a study tour. We met with local officials and toured the medina extensively in an effort to learn how the medina functions today and what problems it faces. <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBi4gFjlT__NYf2NL1Kdw5GD4Q3HKnAl8B2F7GK54PtiFrWRdKiUsXzvGpyW6B9KygMbxe0oSuH30U5WLvY2jPym8LDnwv66npIVHK_jUIChiuty15HaYbse1opIYheOt9-XT6xBfuTg6b/s1600/imagesCAFNRJ1C.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBi4gFjlT__NYf2NL1Kdw5GD4Q3HKnAl8B2F7GK54PtiFrWRdKiUsXzvGpyW6B9KygMbxe0oSuH30U5WLvY2jPym8LDnwv66npIVHK_jUIChiuty15HaYbse1opIYheOt9-XT6xBfuTg6b/s1600/imagesCAFNRJ1C.jpg" /></a></div><h4>Attributes of the Medina</h4>The entire medina was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981, with 13,380 historic buildings since enumerated in the course of a thorough GIS survey of the medina. There are reputed to be 10,539 retail businesses in the medina, which remains a prime commercial center of the city of Fes (population about 1,000,000). The city is located at 34 degrees North latitude and 5 degrees West of the Greenwich meridian. The elevation is 414 meters, giving some relief from the otherwise very hot weather that prevails in the region for about nine months of the year. The entire city is still surrounded by high walls penetrated in a relatively few locations by historic city gates. There is only one large public square of any size, located near the geographic center of the medina. This area is penetrated by a road that gives access to buses, trucks, taxis, and some private cars. Several other gates are also open to road traffic, but in all cases these roads penetrate the medina only a short distance and end at a parking area without connecting to other roads. It is not possible to drive across the medina. <br />
<table bgcolor="#cccccc" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="1"><tbody>
<tr><th bgcolor="#aaaaaa">Statistic</th><th bgcolor="#aaaaaa">Metric Units</th></tr>
<tr><td>Population</td><td>156,000</td></tr>
<tr><td>Medina Dimensions </td><td>About 2400 meters E-W by 1600 meters N-S</td></tr>
<tr><td>Site Size</td><td>300 hectares</td></tr>
<tr><td>Developed Area</td><td>Nearly 100% of total site</td></tr>
<tr><td>Green Area</td><td>Virtually no public green space</td></tr>
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<tr><td>District Density</td><td>About 550 inhabitants per hectare, including many workplaces</td></tr>
<tr><td>Floor Area Ratio (FAR)</td><td>Estimated at 1.5</td></tr>
<tr><td>Longest Journey Within the Medina</td><td>About 40 minutes by foot</td></tr>
<tr><td>Automobile Traffic</td><td>Limited road access to the medina proper; no through passage possible</td></tr>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBi4gFjlT__NYf2NL1Kdw5GD4Q3HKnAl8B2F7GK54PtiFrWRdKiUsXzvGpyW6B9KygMbxe0oSuH30U5WLvY2jPym8LDnwv66npIVHK_jUIChiuty15HaYbse1opIYheOt9-XT6xBfuTg6b/s1600/imagesCAFNRJ1C.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBi4gFjlT__NYf2NL1Kdw5GD4Q3HKnAl8B2F7GK54PtiFrWRdKiUsXzvGpyW6B9KygMbxe0oSuH30U5WLvY2jPym8LDnwv66npIVHK_jUIChiuty15HaYbse1opIYheOt9-XT6xBfuTg6b/s1600/imagesCAFNRJ1C.jpg" /></a></div><h4>Fine Grain, Human Scale</h4>Fes-al-Bali is built to a human scale, and the building blocks of the city are small. The streets are very narrow and can at times suffer from serious congestion. In a walled city such as this, space inside the walls is at a premium. The main streets are thus lined with thousands of small businesses. Their premises are rarely more than a few meters wide, and sometimes only a couple of meters deep. Larger establishments still have only small entrances, with the bulk of the store located behind several other small storefronts. These shops are typically family businesses, and they are packed to the rafters with merchandise. It is not unusual for the proprietor to use a ladder or long hook to retrieve merchandise for a customer. Compared to shops in the West, there is an extraordinary density of goods per square meter of shop space. Most of these stores have no "aisles" as we know them - the customer stands in the street and the shopkeeper stands inside the shop, amidst the goods. It makes for an exceptionally efficient use of space. <br />
The population density of Fes-al-Bali is estimated at 550 inhabitants per hectare. By contrast, the reference design for carfree cities has about half as many people per hectare. I estimate the FAR of the medina at 1.5, which is about the same as in the reference design. This is achieved with lower buildings but a considerably higher plot ratio (about 0.7). Because the space per inhabitant is comparatively low, the number of inhabitants per hectare is about double that in the reference design. The number of workplaces in the medina is not known but is quite considerable. <br />
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</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhvq0ViJnhc63MKIr3fy2-4ln-nWcRDbzjYtRY2suiE0LardvV50_yxz8KQl9vBfe50H-J2wZ760CriQAHE088bgkubZKwjGunOqlDzq3mvGd8GFrf4n4utnRHAsIwmMiyWdqn-mf0DElX/s1600/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhvq0ViJnhc63MKIr3fy2-4ln-nWcRDbzjYtRY2suiE0LardvV50_yxz8KQl9vBfe50H-J2wZ760CriQAHE088bgkubZKwjGunOqlDzq3mvGd8GFrf4n4utnRHAsIwmMiyWdqn-mf0DElX/s1600/images.jpg" /></a></div><h4>Streets</h4>Some streets are as narrow as 60 centimeters (about two feet). Few streets are as wide as five meters (about 16 feet), and then rarely for any distance. The streets are generally too narrow to permit the use of bicycles, although there are a few areas in which they and motor scooters are found, mostly near one or another of the gates. In these areas, a few small trucks sometimes operate, primarily to remove waste. The remainder of the medina is entirely carfree. <h4>Buildings</h4>Buildings are typically 2-3 stories tall, with a fair number of single-story and 4-story buildings. No building exceeds four stories except the minarets of the mosques. Most residential buildings have interior courtyards, typically measuring five meters on a side. <h4>Rooftops</h4>In the hot, dry climate of Fes, rooftop space is valuable and much used. Nearly all buildings have flat roofs that are used to dry laundry, grow some ornamental plants, and sit out in the cooler evening air. <h4>Freight<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgngXhAH3-isaYGY11qQ02tq9EozJhN0cErTe6GHYr3EJVEBb8XmL02A02YLg7dfdWZ4JrqJsBT2FL6a5uzHR3FGthbxCpUigviYIMkBXVkPC1j79XytfFE9k8WWHDVsXfZyLcmhYgEauLu/s1600/250px-Morocco_Fes_Camel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" q6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgngXhAH3-isaYGY11qQ02tq9EozJhN0cErTe6GHYr3EJVEBb8XmL02A02YLg7dfdWZ4JrqJsBT2FL6a5uzHR3FGthbxCpUigviYIMkBXVkPC1j79XytfFE9k8WWHDVsXfZyLcmhYgEauLu/s320/250px-Morocco_Fes_Camel.jpg" width="203" /></a></h4>Within the city, almost no freight is delivered by truck, excepting a few areas near the gates. Several "utility areas" are located just inside or just outside a gate. This is where the change from motorized to non-motorized transport occurs. From here, freight is delivered by donkey, mule-cart, handcart, or on shoulders. The donkey is probably the most common means used, and one of the most common cargoes is LPG cylinders, seven of which can be carried by a single donkey. Even this load forces pedestrians to step aside in the narrower streets. (If gas were piped into buildings, the delivery of cylinders would, of course, no longer be required.) In terms of labor intensity, freight delivery in Fes-al-Bali is probably quite expensive, but this is tempered by the fact that distances are short and traffic delays are rarely an issue. The transshipment of freight in the utility areas is certainly an added expense. This is mitigated somewhat by holding markets in the utility areas, so that the goods only have to be unpacked and sold once. Most of the goods then move from the market to homes in the hands of purchasers. <br />
<h4>Emergency Access</h4>At the time of our visit, Fes-al-Bali was preparing to implement a network of emergency access streets. These were to have a minimum width of 170 centimeters, a width sufficient to permit the passage of 140 cm. vehicles. A few bottlenecks have been identified where minor reconstruction will be needed to maintain the 170 cm. minimum width. The city has purchased a standard narrow-track four-wheel-drive vehicle to use as an ambulance, and similar vehicles are expected to enter service as fire trucks. It seems likely that the city will also elect to use motorized vehicles to collect trash along these routes. It was difficult to see how emergency vehicles would be able to pass through some of the narrowest and most crowded streets, although people are accustomed to moving out of the way of burdened donkeys, which are nearly as wide. <h3>Conclusions</h3>While the circumstances in Fes-al-Bali are not ideal for a modern carfree city, they have posed no significant barriers to the continuance of city life almost entirely free of cars and trucks. Despite the commercial difficulties with freight delivery, the area remains the commercial heart of a much larger city and draws large numbers of shoppers and merchants from other areas of the city. While we would today almost certainly never lay out a city with such narrow streets as Fes-al-Bali, these narrow streets are not, in fact, a serious burden on the city, its residents, or visitors. On the contrary, these streets serve a great many purposes besides transport. They act as informal social spaces (in some areas bordered by sidewalk cafes) and serve as extensions of commercial establishments. Fes-al-Bali, as it now exists, serves as an excellent model for sustainability. Except for modest amounts of LPG used for cooking and some water heating, the city is largely sustainable. The animals used to provide freight transport have been used for this purpose for centuries and could probably continue to perform this chore into the indefinite future. <span class="goog_qs-tidbit-2"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-2">While Fes-al-Bali is not a rich city by Western standards, the people are</span></span> healthy and comparatively prosperous, more so than the comparatively low figures for standard of living would lead one to believe. Fes-al-Bali is worthy of the attention of anyone interested in sustainable urban development. <br />
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</h3></div>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-25738853251701959822011-03-06T16:46:00.000-05:002015-12-24T14:55:48.975-05:00Reinforcing Writing Skills for Back to School<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Reinforcing Writing Skills for Back to School </h3>
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;">Kindergarten</span> Have your child draw a picture, then write a sentence telling about the picture. Help him write the sentence, or write it for him if needed. Then read it together.<br />
Read a book together, then have your child draw a picture of what happened in the beginning, middle, and end. Guide her to write a sentence about each picture write about each picture, ask questions such as, “Why did you like watching the monkeys at the zoo? What did they do that was funny? What happened when the zookeeper gave them bananas?”<br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;">Second Grade</span> Help your <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/definition/child-find/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=6530" id="deeplink-6530" onclick="'if(typeof(s)!="><span style="color: #f48d1d;">child find</span></a> a friend, relative, or even a neighbor to be a pen pal. Encourage him to write or email regularly. For a fun twist, have your child to imagine he is a favorite book or movie character. You can write letters to the character, and your child can write back responding as he thinks the character would. This is your big chance to ask Superman what it is like to fly, or find out how princesses walk without breaking their glass slippers. <br />
Encourage your child to keep a journal to record the fun things he is doing while away from school. The journal can also include lists of books he read, movies he saw, places he went, and friends that visited. These lists are great story starters when your child wants to write a longer piece, but is having trouble deciding what to write about.<br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;">Third Grade</span> Going on vacation? Help your child research your destination, then write about what he wants to do or see there. For example, if planning a trip to Florida, your child might write about visiting a theme park, watching the sunset at the beach, and touring Thomas Edison’s home. Remind your child to include reasons explaining why he would like to do each thing on the list.<br />
Chose a topic to write about, sit with your child, and write your own stories. Stop every few minutes and share what you have both written. Then, add more to the stories. When you read your story aloud, it models good <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/study-help-language-writing/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=42747" id="deeplink-42747" onclick="'if(typeof(s)!="><span style="color: #f48d1d;">writing</span></a> for your child, and sparks ideas that he can add to his own writing. Be sure to praise and encourage your child by saying, “That’s great! I had forgotten that Spot went swimming in the lake during our picnic. How about when Dad fell in trying to get him? I’m going to add that to my story, too.”<br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;">Fourth Grade</span><br />
National Board certified teacher Erika Acklin suggests, “Leave notes around the house on post-its. Have your child respond to the note with a note of their own. You can ask more personal questions that might be more difficult to discuss face to face.” <br />
Have your child keep a vacation scrapbook where she can write the events of each day. Leave room to add postcards, photos, and other memorabilia once you return home.<br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;">Fifth Grade</span><br />
After a trip to the movie theater, have your child write a movie review, then share it with friends and family to persuade them to enjoy the same film. He can also write book reviews explaining why this was or was not a worthwhile read.<br />
Help your child create a family newsletter. She can write articles telling about your weekend camp-out, her sister’s <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/kids-dance/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=21753" id="deeplink-21753" onclick="'if(typeof(s)!="><span style="color: #f48d1d;">dance</span></a> recital, and little brother’s progress in swimming lessons. Those book and movie reviews would be a great addition to the newsletter as well. Print and mail the letters to family and friends, or share them using email.<br />
In addition to these activities, help your child become a better writer by making sure he reads every day. According to literature teacher Tara Barbieri, “Reading helps to build essential <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/study-help-language-vocabulary/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=1173" id="deeplink-1173" onclick="'if(typeof(s)!="><span style="color: #f48d1d;">vocabulary</span></a>, and students who read often are usually the best writers.”<br />
Diane Milne taught elementary school for 12 years. She is currently a freelance writer and has worked with educational publishing companies such as The Learning Source, The Princeton Review, and Kaplan K-12.<br />
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-73145954956638767392011-03-06T16:42:00.000-05:002011-03-06T16:42:07.428-05:00How to help children through their school grades<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><h3 class="post-title entry-title">How to help children through their school grades </h3><div class="post-header"><div class="post-header-line-1"></div></div><div class="post-body entry-content"><div class="topic-intro-contents">Children have many milestones as they develop into young adults. These milestones sometimes pose physical, emotional, social, and academic challenges. Learn more by reading articles on specific challenges that transition times pose, what parents can do to help, and a developmental progress reference chart. </div><h3 class="topic-intro-contents">Introduction</h3><div class="topic-intro-contents">As children progress through different grades in school they face different challenges. In addition to changing academic and social demands, students also experience physical and emotional changes. Although children are continually engaged in the process of adapting to new challenges, educators and <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/definition/mental-health/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=6919" id="deeplink-6919" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">mental health</span></a> professionals agree that there are certain critical transition points which can be particularly stressful and require special support and understanding. Parents and educators can help children cope effectively with their varied school experiences in a number of ways.</div><h3 class="topic-intro-contents"><strong>What particular transition times pose specific challenges?</strong></h3><div class="topic-intro-contents"><strong>Preschool:</strong></div><div class="topic-intro-contents"><ul><li><em>Physical and emotional challenges</em>: For many children, preschool requires the first prolonged separation from parents and other individual caregivers. Children may also be required to sit quietly for short periods of time at a table and listen to directions. </li>
</ul></div><ul><li><em>Social challenges</em>: The group nature of preschool means toddlers must learn to share activities, supplies, and attention, and relate to new children. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Academic challenges</em>: Preschoolers develop their listening, attention and memory skills by learning the names of colors and shapes, listening to and telling stories. </li>
<li><strong>Early elementary school:</strong><br />
<ul><li><em>Physical and emotional challenges</em>: The transition to the grade school years may require moving to a new building and a longer school day. Learning to be a student also becomes important, involving adjusting to the routine and structure of the school day and the development of a sense of responsibility for completion of assignments and homework. Students face more structured, objective rewards and consequences for their behaviors. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Social challenges</em>: In the early grades, children are still adjusting to a world outside the home. They form new friendships, learn about teamwork and may find themselves developing special interests and skills. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Academic challenges</em>: Mastery of the fundamentals needed for the rest of their school careers is required. Children acquire basic <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/study-help-language/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=1233" id="deeplink-1233" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">reading</span></a> and math ability; they learn computational skills, how to read words and how to read for meaning. They are required to answer questions about who, what, and where, which gives them information about character, plot and setting. </li>
<li><strong>Upper elementary school:</strong><br />
<ul><li><em>Physical and emotional challenges</em>: In the upper elementary grades (grades 4 and 5) more independent functioning is required. Differences among students become more apparent with regard to abilities, and given the increased demands on all fronts, new problems may surface or existing ones may be more difficult to handle. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Social challenges</em>: Children have the opportunity to expand <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/social-development-friendship/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=41791" id="deeplink-41791" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">friendships</span></a>, to work cooperatively with others, make their own social arrangements, join social groups outside the family, and plan independent activities. Cliques may form and bullies may cause difficulties, although these difficulties may happen at any point. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Academic challenges</em>: The academic emphasis is no longer on the acquisition of <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/definition/basic-skills/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=1557" id="deeplink-1557" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">basic skills</span></a>. Children are expected to be able to use basic skills to acquire information and solve problems, to be competent in reading comprehension, written expression, and knowledge in content areas. </li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div class="clear"><br />
</div><div class="sky-2wl-left"><a class="anchor" href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="anchor_5340"></a></div><div class="ArticleDetail_Title" id="pmid_5340"><h1 class="article-title article-title3">Transition Points: Helping Students Start, Change, and Move Through the Grades</h1></div><a class="anchor" href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="anchor_5339"></a><div class="ArticleTools" id="pmid_5339"><div class="containme" style="border-bottom: #ccc 1px solid; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 8px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px;"><script type="text/javascript">
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</ul></div><div class="article-source-area"><a class="source-logo floatleft" href="http://www.aboutourkids.org/" title="NYU Child Study Center"><span style="color: #13659b;"><img alt="NYU Child Study Center" src="http://01.edu-cdn.com/files/112101_112200/112112/file_112112.jpg" /></span></a> <div class="article-attribution-area"><div>By Robin F. Goodman, Ph.D.|Susan Schwartz. M.A., Ed.|Robin F. Goodman, Ph.D. </div><a href="http://www.education.com/partner/articles/aboutourkids/"><span style="color: #13659b;">NYU Child Study Center</span></a></div><div class="clearleft"><span style="color: #13659b;"></span></div></div></div><h3 class="module-content article-content ">Introduction</h3><div class="module-content article-content ">As children progress through different grades in school they face different challenges. In addition to changing academic and social demands, students also experience physical and emotional changes. Although children are continually engaged in the process of adapting to new challenges, educators and <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/definition/mental-health/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=6919" id="deeplink-6919" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">mental health</span></a> professionals agree that there are certain critical transition points which can be particularly stressful and require special support and understanding. Parents and educators can help children cope effectively with their varied school experiences in a number of ways.</div><h3 class="module-content article-content "><strong>What particular transition times pose specific challenges?</strong></h3><div class="module-content article-content "><strong>Preschool:</strong></div><div class="module-content article-content "><ul><li><em>Physical and emotional challenges</em>: For many children, preschool requires the first prolonged separation from parents and other individual caregivers. Children may also be required to sit quietly for short periods of time at a table and listen to directions. </li>
</ul></div><ul><li><em>Social challenges</em>: The group nature of preschool means toddlers must learn to share activities, supplies, and attention, and relate to new children. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Academic challenges</em>: Preschoolers develop their listening, attention and memory skills by learning the names of colors and shapes, listening to and telling stories. </li>
</ul><strong>Early elementary school:</strong><br />
<ul><li><em>Physical and emotional challenges</em>: The transition to the grade school years may require moving to a new building and a longer school day. Learning to be a student also becomes important, involving adjusting to the routine and structure of the school day and the development of a sense of responsibility for completion of assignments and homework. Students face more structured, objective rewards and consequences for their behaviors. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Social challenges</em>: In the early grades, children are still adjusting to a world outside the home. They form new friendships, learn about teamwork and may find themselves developing special interests and skills. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Academic challenges</em>: Mastery of the fundamentals needed for the rest of their school careers is required. Children acquire basic <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/study-help-language/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=1233" id="deeplink-1233" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">reading</span></a> and math ability; they learn computational skills, how to read words and how to read for meaning. They are required to answer questions about who, what, and where, which gives them information about character, plot and setting. </li>
</ul><strong>Upper elementary school:</strong><br />
<ul><li><em>Physical and emotional challenges</em>: In the upper elementary grades (grades 4 and 5) more independent functioning is required. Differences among students become more apparent with regard to abilities, and given the increased demands on all fronts, new problems may surface or existing ones may be more difficult to handle. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Social challenges</em>: Children have the opportunity to expand <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/social-development-friendship/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=41791" id="deeplink-41791" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">friendships</span></a>, to work cooperatively with others, make their own social arrangements, join social groups outside the family, and plan independent activities. Cliques may form and bullies may cause difficulties, although these difficulties may happen at any point. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Academic challenges</em>: The academic emphasis is no longer on the acquisition of <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/definition/basic-skills/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=1557" id="deeplink-1557" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">basic skills</span></a>. Children are expected to be able to use basic skills to acquire information and solve problems, to be competent in reading comprehension, written expression, and knowledge in content areas. <strong>Middle school:</strong><br />
<ul><li><em>Physical and emotional challenges</em>: Some communities define a specific period of time as <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/grade/middle-school/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=7923" id="deeplink-7923" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">middle school</span></a>; the span can vary from 5-8th grade or 6-9th and usually entails moving to a new school building. Many children, as in New York City, change schools at 6th grade; independent schools may keep students in one location through 8th grade. The challenge to educators is to help children in these in-between years. Educators are responsive to the concern, for example, that 7th graders have very different needs than 4th graders, and additionally, the younger, newly entering students are unprepared to deal with pressures coming from the older students. During this time, the onset of <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/teenagers-puberty/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=22260" id="deeplink-22260" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">puberty</span></a> necessitates changes in the teen's perception of his or her body and feelings about those changes. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Social challenges</em>: In changing schools, students may be separated from friends with whom they have gone through the lower grades. In addition, the social context changes from the often supportive and individualized setting of a single classroom with a single teacher. Students have to adapt to a social climate that is usually more impersonal as they rotate through departmentalized classes with a number of teachers with different teaching styles and expectations. Peer acceptance becomes critical at this age as do other social pressures such as religious ceremonies (confirmation, bar mitzvah, etc.). </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Academic challenges</em>: More independence is now required. Children need to master several unrelated classes and <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/definition/assignments/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=15711" id="deeplink-15711" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">assignments</span></a> and utilize organizational skills, perhaps maintaining a daily or weekly planner for the first time. The exposure to diverse content allows them to integrate information from one content area to another, such as reading a book for language arts that directly influences their thinking on a topic in social studies. </li>
<li><strong>High school:</strong><br />
<ul><li><em>Physical and emotional challenges</em>: For most, the move to <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/grade/high-school/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=3059" id="deeplink-3059" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">high school</span></a> means a move to a new building, with a greater number of students, new teachers, a new principal, new expectations, and a new, more rigorous disciplinary system. In addition, the adolescent also has to cope with the developmental task of establishing independence from the family while at the same time maintaining family connections. At this stage of life, parents have less direct input into school activities and academic decisions. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Social challenges</em>: Establishing new social connections, balancing work and social life, and, for some students, managing a part-time job, are some of the new demands faced by students entering high school. Pressure to experiment with or engage in alcohol, drug, and sexual activities is also often increased. </li>
</ul><ul><li><em>Academic challenges</em>: Students are expected to have developed an assertive and efficient learning style, and good study and <a class="deeplink" href="http://www.education.com/topic/study-skills-organizing-work/?__module=DeepLink&hit&id=41031" id="deeplink-41031" onclick="if(typeof(s)!="undefined") {if(Cookie.write) {Cookie.write("sprop10", "deeplink-click", {path:"/"});}}"><span style="color: #13659b;">organizational skills</span></a>. The transition into high school means entering into an academic environment which assumes that the student can take responsibility for decisions regarding academic tracks and course selection. The pressure of what to do after graduation and for many, college decisions, is also present. </li>
</ul></li>
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</ul><a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></div></div></div></div>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-73921437281066464002011-03-06T16:18:00.000-05:002015-12-18T16:42:07.300-05:00Argan Oil production Only from Morocco<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr class=" selected"><td class="title" onclick="setSelected(this, "4309842077014601703");" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><div class="postContents">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7z-aOQ7IE8QTQAhiFM7Vjp054odZQIuhB-KFa9RauU0G4vQtUlprJJeCAURgUqIIWpFs-5uuHcq9qU3IyZvcPKzmB1mGBe47tTX-jsRIvnWIFI5dnhKrBck57uyFpaqnE3dX2izUDOF6W/s1600/argan+nuts.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7z-aOQ7IE8QTQAhiFM7Vjp054odZQIuhB-KFa9RauU0G4vQtUlprJJeCAURgUqIIWpFs-5uuHcq9qU3IyZvcPKzmB1mGBe47tTX-jsRIvnWIFI5dnhKrBck57uyFpaqnE3dX2izUDOF6W/s1600/argan+nuts.jpg" /></a><span style="color: blue;">Argan tr</span><span style="color: blue;">ee</span> CompositionArgan oil has gained an international reputation as nature’s anti-aging skin care product. It is rich in naturally occurring antioxidants, essential fatty acids, carotenoids, ferulic acid, sterols, polyphenols, and contains <img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBGw06swnOMaKYmFnwpuHWBRVCF9AuuwEl_59gyp7WKL7GNqHQPEB_SPvgOFBlUBwmYpNVxPdW8sj4c-WKIw82lV6rpwtOy9wHmSpyzczUbOm_UDGhZq4zHfSH_Tqqo-QlpXW1oVBmlbTa/s1600/argan+fruits.jpg" />remarkably high levels of vitamin E. Argan Oil contains Squalene, a unique and rare component which is suggested to protect against skin cancer. Argan Oil amazing inventory of active ingredients provides your skin and body with the nutrients it needs to maintain its healthy radiance.</div>
Argan oil is traditionally used for skin, hair and nail care, cooking, massage, the prevention of stretch marks, and the natural healing of dermatological disorders. Extensive research has revealed that argan oil: restores the skin’s water-lipid layer and increases the amount of nutrients and oxygen in the skin cell, neutralizes free radicals, and protects connective tissue. Its chemical composition has prompted numerous laboratories to use it in their best selling products.<img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiA14iICbjG7K6Ub5yv7gmk0fuGEM8l6SUH6jGiocirULEpMSiHN19_D3kgvzczYfUZZ_yHgD05bRSqqD3rl-QjxLE2Qob257rhXxEMnkI3MyHpkktlfRgZTPuxslctxvGLyDzNHqWPRNgI/s1600/argan+seeds.jpg" /><span style="background-color: white; color: blue;">Argan seeds</span> Argan Oil is 80% unsaturated essential fatty acids. The most abundant of which are Omega 9 (Oleic acid) and Omega 6 (Linoleic acid). Omega 6 is the most sought after of the polyunsaturated essential fatty acids. Essential fatty acids protect cellular integrity and affect cell fluidity, helping to prevent loss of moisture from the skin. They play a vital role in the formation of prostaglandin, a natural anti-inflammatory that reduces pain, swelling and inflammation, while stimulating blood circulation. This vital component makes Argan Oils™ ideal for massaging stiff arthritic joints and aching muscles.<br />
Argan Oil is exceptionally rich in natural Tocopherols (vitamin E) as well as high molecular weight proteins. Vitamin E contributes to the steady development of all bodily systems, protects fat soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids, attracts and maintains hydration, and is a powerful anti-oxidant. The abundance of high molecular weight proteins found in our product construct a network of molecules that creates an instant and visible tightening effect.<br />
Our culinary argan oil has a light and delectable taste that promotes a heart-healthy lifestyle. In recent clinical trials, the consumption of argan oil is shown to lower cholesterol and reduce cardiovascular risk factors thus defending against the onset of atherosclerosis. The extremely high levels of essential fatty acids and the anti-oxidant effect of vitamin E, sterols, and polyphenols help protect your heart and contribute a healthy lifestyle.A Comprehensive Description Of The Main Components<b>Essential Fatty Acids</b> are necessary fats that humans cannot synthesize and must be obtained through diet or skin treatments such as Argan Oils™. They are building compounds the body needs to manufacture and repair cell membranes, enabling the cells to obtain optimum nutrition and expel harmful waste products. They are necessary for regulating healthy skin and premature aging. These acids perform an important role in the lipid management of the epidermis, sebum production, and are required for the formation of <b>prostaglandin</b>. They all have water-binding, moisturizing and antioxidant properties.<img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQOW5PETqrn3wa4CY2W3CktFg6qRgkgI3A3hBejejK8U4e3ulAph9cMVUVKvvuK0jeabTmNX1a-Izfp1IeUOjoy4ZGrNtwQcuooIqtJ4d4G-8DTW0eIf-SSRU3rsCxqlxRzVmBQn7PLugr/s1600/argan+oil+for+eating.jpg" /><span style="background-color: white; color: blue;">Argan Oil for eating</span><b>Prostaglandin</b> is a lipid compound derived enzymatically from essential fatty acids within the cell. It serves as catalysts for a large number of processes. It helps to regulate body functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, smooth muscle contraction, circulation, and immune function. Prostaglandin is a natural anti-inflammatory and acts as a controlling factor in overall cell growth and development.<br />
<b>Carotenoids</b> are a class of natural fat-soluble pigments found in plants that serve to protect eyes and skin from UV radiation and free radical damage; to help maintain our immune system; to promote healthy skin and inhibit the growth of cancer cells. They have been shown to lower the risk of arthritis. The class of carotenoids detected in Argan Oil is xanthophylls. They function as an antioxidant and after absorption from food are converted to form vitamin A in the small intestine and stored in the liver. Carotenoids also protect the arteries and heart. Their antioxidant properties help inhibit the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, the “bad cholesterol”, which can lead to build up of plaque in the arteries.<br />
<b>Polyphenols or polyphenolic compounds</b> are natural components of a wide variety of plants and are also known as secondary plant metabolites. These active compounds are known for their antiseptic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic, and anti-aging properties. They enhance immune response, enhance cell-to-cell communication, repair DNA damage caused by smoking and other toxic exposures, and assist the body to detoxify carcinogens through the activation of the body’s immune system.<br />
<b>Ferulic Acid </b>is the most abundant phenolic compound found in Argan Oils. This antioxidant helps prevent damage caused by ultraviolet light. Exposure to ultraviolet light actually increases the antioxidant potency of ferulic acid. It is often added as an ingredient of anti-aging supplements. Studies have shown that ferulic acid can decrease blood glucose levels and can be of help to diabetes patients. It seems to protect against many types of caner, bone degeneration and menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes. Like many other antioxidants, ferulic acid reduces the level of cholesterol and triglyceride, thereby reducing the risk of heart disease.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-BlKBfo78-Gk_KpSzM-OXiVRYbMot0LEU-io-XDh09QmsIHh5f-ls_eH8nVFv9xRInLflvPzgTfswgY0jUzXHb1_ImWI2ecxd_400Phv4MsiOZ-7T9Tk8CHD1t8MLm2_Tq5s_rLqicGo9/s1600/arganskin+oil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-BlKBfo78-Gk_KpSzM-OXiVRYbMot0LEU-io-XDh09QmsIHh5f-ls_eH8nVFv9xRInLflvPzgTfswgY0jUzXHb1_ImWI2ecxd_400Phv4MsiOZ-7T9Tk8CHD1t8MLm2_Tq5s_rLqicGo9/s1600/arganskin+oil.jpg" /></a><span style="color: blue;">Argan Oil production</span><b>Squalene</b> is a nutrient-rich oil. It is a fat-soluble antioxidant with the unique ability to anchor itself to the body’s cell membrane. It can deactivate the free radical known as a singlet oxygen, the free radical that is generated by exposure to the sun’s UV radiation, and can also absorb and bind fat-soluble toxins, helping to excrete them from the body. Squalene is involved in the process of cell growth. It is able to penetrate deeper and more readily than most other oils. Its compatibility with skin lipids can be attributed to the fact that human sebum, the skin’s own moisturizer, is comprised of 25% squalene. It is proven to have a positive effect on mature and rosacea skin. It is a natural bactericide and healer, and has been shown to have effects in the management of dermatitis and skin cancer.<br />
<b>Sterols (Phytosterols)</b> are a class of lipid-like compounds that helps to prevent skin aging by improving skin metabolism and reducing inflammation. They promote excellent moisture retention and penetrate quickly. They are vital to the structural integrity of the cell membrane. They work in harmony with human skin because the chemical structure of plant sterols and human sterols is very similar. In the skin, human sterols are the main component of its outermost layer and play a fundamental role in aiding and maintaining optimal skin barrier function. Two of the families of sterols found in Argan oil, schottenol and spinasterol, are known for their anticancer properties and are rarely found in vegetable oils. Additionally, sterols are known to block cholesterol absorption sites in the human intestine thus helping to reduce the overall amount absorbed in the body.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSwgr0BEYcaXBoBYTQis13jKlpzF3YaXS1FxB8ZYSfIjpjK4BlmfZDx05NKSnMkB8nzIgdUZBvVqwQFoy7Iwpfl3qgu1cRyPRjhCrzerq7R-rcbLheHUri4UcX9MJcUP18jLYtxWcSTkPi/s1600/argan+oil.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSwgr0BEYcaXBoBYTQis13jKlpzF3YaXS1FxB8ZYSfIjpjK4BlmfZDx05NKSnMkB8nzIgdUZBvVqwQFoy7Iwpfl3qgu1cRyPRjhCrzerq7R-rcbLheHUri4UcX9MJcUP18jLYtxWcSTkPi/s1600/argan+oil.bmp" /></a><span style="color: blue;">Argan oil for Cosmetics</span><b>Vitamin E (Tocopherol)</b> is a fat-soluble vitamin. It is a powerful antioxidant and excellent free-radical scavenger. Vitamin E protects essential fatty acids and vitamin A levels in the body. It accumulates in the epidermis and forms a barrier against moisture evaporation from the skin. Vitamin E prevents cellular aging due to oxidation, aids in bringing nourishment to cells, and decreases inflammation and strengthens capillary walls. It has been shown to significantly help in the reduction of scarring from wounds and the appearance of stretch marks. Vitamin E’s antioxidant properties help to prevent oxidation of LDL cholesterol, the so-called “bad cholesterol”. This may lower the risk of heart disease and stroke. Research has suggested a link between vitamin E and the prevention of certain cancers and degenerative diseases.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHdVHlWA4bZZ75agsUU54iScKHWr2vShVP5dpmOgcQO37W8x5xqn_DWvfI5yjDvUsuTMwofV0ibEtV2WNk4pmY-2LKa0LAcHh1_5T9vNXLU_pet5i1axkz-fQWPEy-99vjyl8m0Z3ODN-Q/s1600/41yeyZntemL._SL75_%255B1%255D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHdVHlWA4bZZ75agsUU54iScKHWr2vShVP5dpmOgcQO37W8x5xqn_DWvfI5yjDvUsuTMwofV0ibEtV2WNk4pmY-2LKa0LAcHh1_5T9vNXLU_pet5i1axkz-fQWPEy-99vjyl8m0Z3ODN-Q/s1600/41yeyZntemL._SL75_%255B1%255D.jpg" /></a><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white; color: blue;">Argan oil for cosmetics</span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white; color: blue;"><a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></span></span><br />
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-64612521429334803762011-03-05T21:08:00.000-05:002011-03-05T21:15:26.049-05:00Casblanca The Bigest City In Morocco<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_0GHW-dbq7CThg5eEL5dsI6r52IkhTPYT64lrJwPtWY0KA6qB6XjNVylab06Y61im1VSTzyOSwre-DtZu-_Bp_fVlndnwbJQstMliRsLhWQAIOVvnxEraNDbo9saLF47LCZqvk4c2FEYE/s1600/maroc+sasn+complexes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="130" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_0GHW-dbq7CThg5eEL5dsI6r52IkhTPYT64lrJwPtWY0KA6qB6XjNVylab06Y61im1VSTzyOSwre-DtZu-_Bp_fVlndnwbJQstMliRsLhWQAIOVvnxEraNDbo9saLF47LCZqvk4c2FEYE/s320/maroc+sasn+complexes.jpg" width="110" /></a></div><br />
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<div class="field-content"><span style="color: cyan;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Casablanca (‘Dar el-Beïda' in Moroccan Arabic, which translates as ‘White House' in English) or Casa as it is known colloquially, was a tiny Berber settlement that became a home port for privateers, before turning into a trading post with Europe.</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj70WOt6s80RIZKhtSIw_y8ZxQZKFUzWJBypKGSTxqi7rYMO5D651ieFHKUvKM5_3D1MpghQ1tN76qcSPNsd8Ds0rBU8GZfzqkz1DVcgIAVmJiLeppi5JSC56gLxPglxaTN41Euz-qshPyj/s1600/history.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj70WOt6s80RIZKhtSIw_y8ZxQZKFUzWJBypKGSTxqi7rYMO5D651ieFHKUvKM5_3D1MpghQ1tN76qcSPNsd8Ds0rBU8GZfzqkz1DVcgIAVmJiLeppi5JSC56gLxPglxaTN41Euz-qshPyj/s1600/history.jpg" /></span></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Then, in the era of the French protectorate at the dawn of the 20th century, it mushroomed into what is today one of Africa's four largest cities. It was the vision of French governor Marshal Lyautey that set in train a massive half-century project that rebuilt the city and its facilities until they outshone those of Marseille, the port that had been the inspiration. </span><br />
<span style="color: black;">Casablanca today uses 35% of the nation's electricity and handles 41% of its exports. Thanks to one of the world's largest artificial harbours, Casablanca dominates Morocco's industrial and <span style="background-color: white;">service sectors. </span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjS0V97YTUrost7l5EiWJ8_CiIRLwg_f1pnYRaKUzfk4NFlToI6mTp34nfGAcuezttk-gPB0ZPxovbsCsM0IHaSOgsPpBqK_kS0JI1jNblYpXNwNEv3b-DUCfmvDOXUjOc9Y2TbM9Fh8inZ/s1600/220px-Twincenter.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="background-color: white; color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjS0V97YTUrost7l5EiWJ8_CiIRLwg_f1pnYRaKUzfk4NFlToI6mTp34nfGAcuezttk-gPB0ZPxovbsCsM0IHaSOgsPpBqK_kS0JI1jNblYpXNwNEv3b-DUCfmvDOXUjOc9Y2TbM9Fh8inZ/s1600/220px-Twincenter.jpg" /></span></a></div><span style="color: black;"><br />
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<h2 style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5_K5A1XhfXZ0ePGa2eQ695qB0EYrfTO2LruspU_F4HbzckR0YDyDyQNUOab76-XMkZ5zSC1LN6VDx6FNEZT-7xfpHLu6KNVqrN8nDpr6wyOBOuSSI3ocbdP2fSuOKTWUp-fGEh7GgCVuG/s1600/casablanca.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5_K5A1XhfXZ0ePGa2eQ695qB0EYrfTO2LruspU_F4HbzckR0YDyDyQNUOab76-XMkZ5zSC1LN6VDx6FNEZT-7xfpHLu6KNVqrN8nDpr6wyOBOuSSI3ocbdP2fSuOKTWUp-fGEh7GgCVuG/s1600/casablanca.bmp" /></span></a><span style="color: black;">History:</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNEBd7iqJok2n2-q1dtqdFKcxDTti_2Ll0J-gETHzMALeMgTYMw84lE5lLYSdv3pjukiCeMrv4uWmmBZXcinsn5yOzodw3gNqolQojUMMf447uu0gprHrXDgZa2-wQWgS1XAq0Wu5TpeXi/s1600/casa.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNEBd7iqJok2n2-q1dtqdFKcxDTti_2Ll0J-gETHzMALeMgTYMw84lE5lLYSdv3pjukiCeMrv4uWmmBZXcinsn5yOzodw3gNqolQojUMMf447uu0gprHrXDgZa2-wQWgS1XAq0Wu5TpeXi/s1600/casa.bmp" /></span></a></h2></div><span style="background-color: white;"><br />
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="background-color: white;"> The city nicknamed as the business capital, houses the second largest mosque, next to Mecca. Hassan II Mosque is a marvellous spectacle to behold and is worth visiting just because</span> of the sheer size and glorious architecture of the building.</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFs-gym40uwh5lhwP4-Ek3AHjmIlqwGD9f-1J7B6yFlATh9i06ozRiLUPSV3onGMZ2wk1sJJrG6Gri335H-NuQqAndvG-Gb54JwkG3DKx3M-9XJtXLOV9qhQ3aM8-X2mnbXFEUfAkxRpzT/s1600/135px-Casablanca_-_Morocco_008.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFs-gym40uwh5lhwP4-Ek3AHjmIlqwGD9f-1J7B6yFlATh9i06ozRiLUPSV3onGMZ2wk1sJJrG6Gri335H-NuQqAndvG-Gb54JwkG3DKx3M-9XJtXLOV9qhQ3aM8-X2mnbXFEUfAkxRpzT/s1600/135px-Casablanca_-_Morocco_008.jpg" /></span></a><br />
<span style="color: black;">Casablanca offers a holiday with so much culture and sightseeing that it really deserves to be explored in its entirety. Visitors that are fascinated by authentic Moroccan culture must go to La Corniche where there is a wealth of architecture to study with Sidi Abdel Rahman beach close by. The Sidi Abdel Rahman holds the tomb of the patron saint and stands as a memorial with which you are able to visit. It is here that you will see how religion plays a big part in the society of Casablanca and its history.</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIpl_1Li-OmvZ3XXSIHeztsHyZmJ_02oj5CWheT5QyaSsMsqfoEJnay1wZbODm8SbUXqDknhVnLHHwcKSvUV_0eY23hWMU0iLgh7_6b8WiQtvkOif3_roPQya_rRoeEan54ZNBg_aqNGC9/s1600/sultanSidiMohammed.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIpl_1Li-OmvZ3XXSIHeztsHyZmJ_02oj5CWheT5QyaSsMsqfoEJnay1wZbODm8SbUXqDknhVnLHHwcKSvUV_0eY23hWMU0iLgh7_6b8WiQtvkOif3_roPQya_rRoeEan54ZNBg_aqNGC9/s1600/sultanSidiMohammed.jpg" /></span></a><br />
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<div id="SnippetList_ctl09_ctl00_SnippetContent"><span style="color: black;">During the 19th century, Casablanca prospered off the back of its wool industry and its value as a port town was once again realised. The French were the next to make their mark on the town, with the 20th century seeing a period of colonisation following initial resistance from the locals. French control of Casablanca was made official in 1910 but once again, the locals were ill at ease with the situation and anti-French sentiment peaked in the 1940s and 50s, manifesting itself in a wave of rioting with the Christmas Day bombing of 1953 among the most notorious attacks.</span><br />
<span style="color: black;"> The country eventually shook itself free of French control, officially declaring itself independent on 2 March, 1956. Since then it has seen considerable development and has gained a reputation as a city with a solid tourist infrastructure as well as being the country’s business and economic capital</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtFq_-7ajNBC837UIBfOd7WP8f0Jzg8JaVS3wtTUyT1a2MLMVPo5K29kpW9SuYCep9e6BLG7feaQ9-YvSFAmNeYmTTWpO61j6ysTaZ0PJb_0Rz7t2sPW2mEBF-o4vYdtgQ3EfjaM-BRiJ1/s1600/image%255B1%255D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtFq_-7ajNBC837UIBfOd7WP8f0Jzg8JaVS3wtTUyT1a2MLMVPo5K29kpW9SuYCep9e6BLG7feaQ9-YvSFAmNeYmTTWpO61j6ysTaZ0PJb_0Rz7t2sPW2mEBF-o4vYdtgQ3EfjaM-BRiJ1/s1600/image%255B1%255D.jpg" /></span></a></div><span id="SnippetList_ctl09_ctl00_LinkContent1_LinkContent"></span><span style="color: black;"> A visit during the summertime to Ain Diab beach will see many crowds relaxing by the golden sandy coves, swimming or taking part in activities that are scattered across the coastline. At night the area becomes a colourful place teeming with bars and restaurants where you can relax in the cooler atmosphere that continues to deliver on expectations.</span><br />
<span style="color: black;"> A visit to the old medina will give you a real taste of Moroccan life and really creates a sense of so much history packed into one area of Casablanca. The Old Medina is surrounded by busy stalls, merchants and the colourful market district with its with spices and fresh fruit littered around the stalls - a real marvel to see. You will find everything from clothes, jewellery and souvenirs that can be bought here - perfect way of bringing a little bit of morocco back with you.</span><br />
<span style="color: black;">With the commercial aspects aside, what you have is a country that is enriched with mountainous regions and colourful landscapes that can be seen all around you. It is <img alt="Picture" height="214" src="http://www.cadoganholidays.com/Images/0/0/ebc5cf02-7235-4f50-8bca-a13fb32bc28c.jpg" style="border-bottom: black 1px solid; border-left: black 1px solid; border-right: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid; float: right; margin: 10px;" width="364" />plain to see that a holiday to Casablanca, made most famous by the 1943 film of the same name, is the perfect break for those that seek a healthy mixture of both architectural wonders and tropical beaches, accompanied by a strong emphasis on Islamic faith and tradition that in no way has been lost with the modern developments </span><br />
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<span style="color: black;">Casablanca’s climate is predominantly Mediterranean in character with typically hot summers and winters that are mild to cool with the majority of rain falling between November and April. The summer season runs from June through till September with the month of July and August experiencing the hottest temperatures (highs of 25/26°C). As these are not excessively high temperatures, it’s perfectly feasible to plan a trip to Casablanca during this period and if it’s a beach holiday that you are seeking then this would probably be the ideal time.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black;"> </span><a class="main" href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0034583/"><span style="color: black;">Casablanca</span></a><span style="color: black;"> (</span><a href="http://www.imdb.com/year/1942/"><span style="color: black;">1942</span></a><span style="color: black;">)( The movie)</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqh4G1B-lFCqtq_2gXNK9CUsZ-O2l7cdBk-L82IOFbUO4slhkllRUWUabnhF9TePT7N35QReugwaaaKi7kHrTUvp0lX-uqKRTghEE-cd3w5dxuNRBqUqQcaiUb4uKQRlQwXafb6eWSp2MD/s1600/MV5BMTcwNDI5MjI1Ml5BMl5BanBnXkFtZTYwODE4NDI2__V1__SX92_SY140_.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqh4G1B-lFCqtq_2gXNK9CUsZ-O2l7cdBk-L82IOFbUO4slhkllRUWUabnhF9TePT7N35QReugwaaaKi7kHrTUvp0lX-uqKRTghEE-cd3w5dxuNRBqUqQcaiUb4uKQRlQwXafb6eWSp2MD/s1600/MV5BMTcwNDI5MjI1Ml5BMl5BanBnXkFtZTYwODE4NDI2__V1__SX92_SY140_.jpg" /></span></a><br />
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<div class="plotpar"><span style="color: black;"> </span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjO5btvuCotQptJvEB0HmM8nzhyYzEiaAu4v2oIocCY5PUGwEj7SpGP1mEQDZCkZCSCQb0Huky29lYEgYxVGBFAj-1YMsLr-7o3upKHBCFrt5SqrWdnFUlajDnNR1s8r_XSBjgso4oxHZIl/s1600/220px-Casablanca%252C_title.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjO5btvuCotQptJvEB0HmM8nzhyYzEiaAu4v2oIocCY5PUGwEj7SpGP1mEQDZCkZCSCQb0Huky29lYEgYxVGBFAj-1YMsLr-7o3upKHBCFrt5SqrWdnFUlajDnNR1s8r_XSBjgso4oxHZIl/s1600/220px-Casablanca%252C_title.jpg" /></span></a><span style="color: black;"> In World War II Casablanca, Rick Blaine, exiled American and former freedom fighter, runs the most popular nightspot in town. The cynical lone wolf Blaine comes into the possession of two valuable letters of transit. When Nazi Major Strasser arrives in Casablanca, the sycophantic police Captain Renault does what he can to please him, including detaining Czech underground leader Victor Laszlo. Much to Rick's surprise, Lazslo arrives with Ilsa, Rick's one time love. Rick is very bitter towards Ilsa, who ran out on him in Paris, but when he learns she had good reason to, they plan to run off together again using the letters of transit. Well, that was their original plan.... <i>Written by <a href="http://www.imdb.com/search/title?plot_author=Gary%20Jackson%20%3Cgaryjack5@cogeco.ca%3E&view=simple&sort=alpha">http://www.imdb.com/search/title?plot_author=Gary%20Jackson%20%3Cgaryjack5@cogeco.ca%3E&view=simple&sort=alpha</a> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVuu9JjwuD7bQAF7fgwQ3PsysTSKwoLSWpmjFGoNyWTkiK6IE6QtmJyOuZLaxFo3lsVgaR_lWv1g0UpheNokUd50K-fo7stjc3iOy3eWgcDgkEkmbs66gAdGb3GMKW5z38YiSqUlS2z6Ms/s1600/220px-Principal_Cast_in_Casablanca_Trailer_crop.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVuu9JjwuD7bQAF7fgwQ3PsysTSKwoLSWpmjFGoNyWTkiK6IE6QtmJyOuZLaxFo3lsVgaR_lWv1g0UpheNokUd50K-fo7stjc3iOy3eWgcDgkEkmbs66gAdGb3GMKW5z38YiSqUlS2z6Ms/s1600/220px-Principal_Cast_in_Casablanca_Trailer_crop.jpg" /></a></i></span></div><div class="plotpar"><span style="color: black;">During World War II, Europeans who were fleeing from the Germans, sought refuge in America. But to get there they would first have to go Casablanca and once they get there, they have to obtain exit visas which are not very easy to come by. Now the hottest spot in all of Casablanca is Rick's Cafe which is operated by Rick Blaine, an American expatriate, who for some reason can't return there, and he is also extremely cynical. Now it seems that two German couriers were killed and the documents they were carrying were taken. Now one of Rick's regulars, Ugarte entrusts to him some letters of transit, which he intends to sell but before he does he is arrested for killing the couriers. Captain Renault, the Chief of Police, who is neutral in his political views, informs Rick that Victor Laszlo, the European Resistance leader, is in Casablanca and will do anything to get an exit visa but Renault has been "told" by Major Strasser of the Gestapo, to keep Laszlo in Casablanca. Laszlo goes to Rick's to meet Ugarte, because he was the one Ugarte was going to sell the letters to. But since Ugarte was arrested he has to find another way. Accompanying him is Ilsa Lund, who knew Rick when he was in Paris, and when they meet some of Rick's old wounds reopen. It is obvious that Rick's stone heart was because of her leaving him. And when they learn that Rick has the letters, he refuses to give them to him, because "he doesn't stick his neck out for anyone". <i>Written by <a href="http://www.imdb.com/search/title?plot_author=rcs0411@yahoo.com&view=simple&sort=alpha">http://www.imdb.com/search/title?plot_author=rcs0411@yahoo.com&view=simple&sort=alpha</a> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT87-vLwzQUYz6iNjjBgWK23kUVNykQIN6FUnFMVr4kzs7lKZnmI_zBgz7ZffzA9aQziV_1_0oncdeXKaaZfUrISIU920gElK6HmUfI4503HRM9Jh7cRWAcDB9bJwPFsSb1D57nzwSqQR2/s1600/220px-Casablanca%252C_Trailer_Screenshot.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT87-vLwzQUYz6iNjjBgWK23kUVNykQIN6FUnFMVr4kzs7lKZnmI_zBgz7ZffzA9aQziV_1_0oncdeXKaaZfUrISIU920gElK6HmUfI4503HRM9Jh7cRWAcDB9bJwPFsSb1D57nzwSqQR2/s1600/220px-Casablanca%252C_Trailer_Screenshot.jpg" /></a></i></span></div><div class="plotpar"><span style="color: black;">Rick Blaine, who owns a nightclub in Casablanca, discovers his old flame Ilsa is in town with her husband, Victor Laszlo. Laszlo is a Resistance leader, and with Germans on his tail, Ilsa knows Rick can help them get out of the country - but will he? <i>Written by <a href="http://www.imdb.com/search/title?plot_author=Anonymous&view=simple&sort=alpha">Anonymous</a></i></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black;"><br />
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</span></div><span style="color: black;"> </span></div><span id="SnippetList_ctl12_ctl00_LinkContent1_LinkContent" style="color: black;"></span></div></div></div>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-34763809643121844672011-03-05T20:22:00.000-05:002015-12-24T14:46:47.174-05:00History of Morocco<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD1BmdnPOJ2raq6GeXmbvNVqfcrE76B3dnBJLKIv3pNE6A163GOXijxoz9upn8xxdsJvvJwXr3l_sdJSLvwhM9g0pSrVZerHIfuClvifBuk1OYVedYbM-FTaLOtlp-HAa9dKz_Jrg3E-6e/s1600/beauty+of+fes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD1BmdnPOJ2raq6GeXmbvNVqfcrE76B3dnBJLKIv3pNE6A163GOXijxoz9upn8xxdsJvvJwXr3l_sdJSLvwhM9g0pSrVZerHIfuClvifBuk1OYVedYbM-FTaLOtlp-HAa9dKz_Jrg3E-6e/s1600/beauty+of+fes.jpg" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimkPepZcLK8u4FTK_kCSyhE7FnLqbacaAOhVMSvz4jGKpGUTlUmi_ujOQ8pT3Ln7XOXeClUB4O5_gRw1NboIl5FXYJyRs7TUpCf8uFey-dCbppOwziIRyiNX7-FpyZlMYTHabw-SMErWoT/s1600/kasbah.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimkPepZcLK8u4FTK_kCSyhE7FnLqbacaAOhVMSvz4jGKpGUTlUmi_ujOQ8pT3Ln7XOXeClUB4O5_gRw1NboIl5FXYJyRs7TUpCf8uFey-dCbppOwziIRyiNX7-FpyZlMYTHabw-SMErWoT/s1600/kasbah.bmp" /></a> The <strong>History of Morocco</strong> spans over 12 centuries, without considering the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Classical antiquity</span></a>. The country was first unified by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Idrisid dynasty</span></a> in 780, representing the first Islamic state in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Africa</span></a> autonomous from the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Empire" title="Arab Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Arab Empire</span></a>. Under the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Almoravid dynasty</span></a> and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_dynasty" title="Almohad dynasty"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Almohad dynasty</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"><span style="color: #0b0080;">Morocco</span></a> dominated the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Maghreb</span></a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Andalus" title="Al Andalus"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Muslim Spain</span></a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquista"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Reconquista</span></a> ended Almohad rule in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberia" title="Iberia"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Iberia</span></a> and many Muslims and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Jews</span></a> migrated to Morocco. Under the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi_dynasty"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Saadi dynasty</span></a>, Morocco would consolidate power and fight off <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Portuguese</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ottoman</span></a> invaders, as in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ksar_el_Kebir" title="Battle of Ksar el Kebir"><span style="color: #0645ad;">battle of Ksar el Kebir</span></a>. The reign of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Mansur"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ahmad al-Mansur</span></a> brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and an invasion of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhay_Empire" title="Songhay Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Songhay Empire</span></a> was initiated. However managing the territories across the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sahara</span></a> proved to be difficult. After the death of al-Mansur the country was divided among his sons. In 1666 the sultanate was reunited by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaouite_dynasty"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Alaouite dynasty</span></a>, who have since been the ruling house of Morocco. The organization of the state developed with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_Ibn_Sharif"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ismail Ibn Sharif</span></a>. With his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Guard"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Black Guard</span></a> he drove the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Empire" title="English Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">English</span></a> from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangier"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tangier</span></a> (1684) and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Spanish</span></a> from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larache"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Larache</span></a> (1689). The Alaouite dynasty distinguished itself in the 19th century by maintaining Moroccan independence while other states in the region succumbed to European interests. In 1912, after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis"><span style="color: #0645ad;">First Moroccan Crisis</span></a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agadir_Crisis"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Agadir Crisis</span></a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fez"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Treaty of Fez</span></a> was signed, effectively dividing Morocco into a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Morocco" title="French Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">French</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Morocco" title="Spanish Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Spanish protectorate</span></a>. In 1956, after 44 years of occupation Morocco regained independence from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"><span style="color: #0645ad;">France</span></a> as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Morocco" title="List of rulers of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Kingdom of Morocco</span></a></div>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Prehistoric_Morocco"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Prehistoric Morocco<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkKX-YySF8k63kYAeXehPoQceWtMd53i4MC7C0F5t5vhYX9Y1UEDx-w8ncLy79ENza-kDOYTOJYQiXKP_lM3X1mYumUp8rwVF3fJZAUvYaeesZG2Q_KxT15I93Nfhd_qoKr3ztitPJ3f_5/s1600/volubilis1.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkKX-YySF8k63kYAeXehPoQceWtMd53i4MC7C0F5t5vhYX9Y1UEDx-w8ncLy79ENza-kDOYTOJYQiXKP_lM3X1mYumUp8rwVF3fJZAUvYaeesZG2Q_KxT15I93Nfhd_qoKr3ztitPJ3f_5/s1600/volubilis1.bmp" /></a></span></strong></span><br />
The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsian_culture"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Capsian culture</span></a> brought <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"><span style="color: #0b0080;">Morocco</span></a> into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Neolithic</span></a> about 2001 BC, at a time when the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Maghreb</span></a> was less arid than it is today. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Berber language</span></a> probably was formed at roughly the same time as agriculture (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_people" title="Berber people"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Berber</span></a>), and was developed by the existing population and adopted the immigrants who arrived later. Modern DNA analysis (see link) has confirmed that various populations have contributed to the present-day gene pool of Morocco in addition to the main ethnic group which is the Amazighs/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_people" title="Berber people"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Berbers</span></a>. A very small precentage of those other populations are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian" title="Iberian"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Iberians</span></a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Sahara" title="Sub-Sahara"><span style="color: #0645ad;">sub-Saharan</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" title="Africa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Africans</span></a>.<br />
In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mesolithic</span></a> ages the geography of Morocco resembled a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna"><span style="color: #0645ad;">savanna</span></a> more than the present day arid landscape.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-0"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[1]</span></a></sup> While little is known about Morocco settlement in these early times, excavations elsewhere in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Maghreb</span></a> suggest an abundance of game and forests that would have been hospitable to Mesolithic hunters and gatherers.<br />
The coastal regions of present-day Morocco shared in an early <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Neolithic</span></a> culture that was common to the whole <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean" title="Mediterranean"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mediterranean</span></a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littoral" title="Littoral"><span style="color: #0645ad;">littoral</span></a>. Archaeological remains point to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication"><span style="color: #0645ad;">domestication</span></a> of cattle and the cultivation of crops in the region during that period. Eight thousand years ago, south of the great mountain ranges in what is now the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara_Desert" title="Sahara Desert"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sahara Desert</span></a>, a vast <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna"><span style="color: #0645ad;">savanna</span></a> supported Neolithic hunters and herders whose culture flourished until the region began to desiccate as a result of climatic changes after 4000 BC.<br />
<strong><span style="color: blue;"> </span></strong><span class="mw-headline" id="Phoenicians_on_the_coast"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Phoenicians on the coast</span></strong></span><span class="mw-headline"> </span><br />
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Indeed in the 5th century, the region fell to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Vandals</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigoths"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Visigoths</span></a>, and then <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Byzantine Greeks</span></a> in rapid succession. During this time, however, the high mountains of most of modern Morocco remained unsubdued, and stayed in the hands of their Berber inhabitants.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Christianity</span></a> was introduced in the 2nd century and gained converts in the towns and among slaves and Berber farmers. By the end of the 4th century, the Romanized areas had been Christianized, and inroads had been made as well among the Berber tribes, who sometimes converted en masse. But <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schism_(religion)" title="Schism (religion)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">schismatic</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy#Christianity" title="Heresy"><span style="color: #0645ad;">heretical</span></a> movements also developed, usually as forms of political protest. The area had a substantial <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish" title="Jewish"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Jewish</span></a> population as well. It was during this time that Morocco became a Jewish kingdom until the arrival of Islam. The majority of the history of the Jewish Kingdom of Morocco is now known and is being researched by scholars through out the world, and is of major interest since the current rulers are considered to be originated in those years.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihHQGQ2Ewk-WksgC7tuOJkjCTnce1T12s7T_L6E0IC_lMYW5JOjNaAT8D4cd1PfGHUrL1v8QdbPLhzaf20aP__TAVLLczyv3huhCT8Kt88Thnn8yEYKGbYVQkJQb8ygWbuDDwk08YGFmuS/s1600/DIHYA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihHQGQ2Ewk-WksgC7tuOJkjCTnce1T12s7T_L6E0IC_lMYW5JOjNaAT8D4cd1PfGHUrL1v8QdbPLhzaf20aP__TAVLLczyv3huhCT8Kt88Thnn8yEYKGbYVQkJQb8ygWbuDDwk08YGFmuS/s1600/DIHYA.jpg" /></a><br />
<span class="mw-headline" id="Early_Islamic_Morocco"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Early Islamic Morocco</span></strong></span><br />
<span class="mw-headline"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab" title="Arab">Arabs</a> conquered the region in the 7th century, bringing their civilization and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam">Islam</a>, to which many of the Berbers converted. While part of the larger <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Islamic Empire</a>, client states such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nekor">Kingdom of Nekor</a> were formed. Arab conquerors converted the indigenous Berber population to Islam, but Berber tribes retained their customary laws. The Arabs abhorred the Berbers as barbarians, while the Berbers often saw the Arabs as only an arrogant and brutal soldiery bent on collecting taxes. Once established as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>, the Berbers shaped Islam in their own image and embraced schismatic Muslim sects, which in many cases were simply <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_religion">folk religion</a> thinly disguised as Islam, as their way of breaking from Arab control.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqD9v1D7AFEk1IcPvm252fOMmUr2-U10BfIhcFC1pbI2qzX_JivVlMxa4T2j9-5Q8RJgrOQJ3Ro5iOvrpfGY8lrvcZRcwrkoe7YuwQfU7d0_v74hoseRMceFbkExRC6PLOn3k9GqCP_JrN/s1600/palace.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqD9v1D7AFEk1IcPvm252fOMmUr2-U10BfIhcFC1pbI2qzX_JivVlMxa4T2j9-5Q8RJgrOQJ3Ro5iOvrpfGY8lrvcZRcwrkoe7YuwQfU7d0_v74hoseRMceFbkExRC6PLOn3k9GqCP_JrN/s1600/palace.jpg" /></a><br />
The region soon broke away from the control of the distant <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> caliphs in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad">Baghdad</a> under <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_ibn_Abdallah" title="Idris ibn Abdallah">Idris ibn Abdallah</a> who founded the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrisid_Dynasty" title="Idrisid Dynasty">Idrisid Dynasty</a>. Morocco became a centre of learning and a major power.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMSJNLzNBkka31GE6rWr1n2URSW_UU6LrbAHwPN109VWGZqqUxeqXADOe-CRiOwgZJHAdikOIcBiKRXecHZW1pXeoWN37q0TNWDuJfdGXVx8hn7g6xe3CJ0VFfWWEMtR4IQV0g-rnOFIgY/s1600/14.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMSJNLzNBkka31GE6rWr1n2URSW_UU6LrbAHwPN109VWGZqqUxeqXADOe-CRiOwgZJHAdikOIcBiKRXecHZW1pXeoWN37q0TNWDuJfdGXVx8hn7g6xe3CJ0VFfWWEMtR4IQV0g-rnOFIgY/s1600/14.jpg" /></a><br />
Morocco reached its height under a series of Berber dynasties, that arose south of the Atlas Mountains and expanded their rule northwards, replacing the Arab Idrisids. The 11th and 12th centuries witnessed the founding of several great Berber dynasties led by religious reformers and each based on a tribal confederation that dominated the Maghrib (also seen as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb">Maghreb</a>; refers to North Africa west of Egypt) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> for more than 200 years<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9k-xnN8dQqWgN-l4bZla7E9YGeIYVSsy8LG9Y8FZZAk-IxEm8dadbitM4Dd3WhM8M71hOLdBzT3G5idMdnFLyKQkRIAqHKi9GSBxHiAVqSUhfUeArQp5kO5exhvrqDuMuX9IpONZFVlIf/s1600/riad+a+marrakech.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9k-xnN8dQqWgN-l4bZla7E9YGeIYVSsy8LG9Y8FZZAk-IxEm8dadbitM4Dd3WhM8M71hOLdBzT3G5idMdnFLyKQkRIAqHKi9GSBxHiAVqSUhfUeArQp5kO5exhvrqDuMuX9IpONZFVlIf/s1600/riad+a+marrakech.jpg" /></a>. The Berber dynasties (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravids" title="Almoravids">Almoravids</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohads" title="Almohads">Almohads</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid" title="Marinid">Marinids</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wattasids" title="Wattasids">Wattasids</a>) gave the Berber people some measure of collective identity and political unity under a native regime for the first time in their history, and they created the idea of an “imperial Maghrib” under Berber aegis that survived in some form from dynasty to dynasty. But ultimately each of the Berber dynasties proved to be a political failure because none managed to create an integrated society out of a social landscape dominated by tribes that prized their autonomy and individual identity.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbEY2_5jaGCDLJW35fZ5kJLeq10XC0HYRntU9DagyaFzxqitNgNNh5nJwRX9UiwhXm8idf0KloVvnQ08WLKT7GI-iNvi2TeluEdJBLUQwVoTsVQR5uG-qDbSFirE_NOspYWotka2TqdISj/s1600/hassan.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbEY2_5jaGCDLJW35fZ5kJLeq10XC0HYRntU9DagyaFzxqitNgNNh5nJwRX9UiwhXm8idf0KloVvnQ08WLKT7GI-iNvi2TeluEdJBLUQwVoTsVQR5uG-qDbSFirE_NOspYWotka2TqdISj/s1600/hassan.bmp" /></a><br />
In 1559, the region fell to successive Arab tribes claiming descent from the Prophet <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad">Muhammad</a>: first the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi_Dynasty" title="Saadi Dynasty">Saadi Dynasty</a> who ruled from 1511 to 1659 and then the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaouite_Dynasty" title="Alaouite Dynasty">Alaouites</a>, who founded a dynasty that has remained in power since the 17th century.</span> <br />
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<span class="mw-headline" id="The_Alaouite_Dynasty"><strong><span style="color: blue;">The Alaouite Dynasty</span></strong></span><br />
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The <b>Alaouite Dynasty</b> is the name of the current <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco"><span style="color: #0b0080;">Moroccan</span></a> royal family. The name Alaouite comes from the <i>‘Alī</i> of its founder <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulay_Ali_Cherif"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Moulay Ali Cherif</span></a> who became <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sultan</span></a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafilalt"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tafilalt</span></a> in 1631. His son <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Rashid_of_Morocco" title="Al-Rashid of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mulay r-Rshid</span></a> (1664–1672) was able to unite and pacify the country. The Alaouite family claim descent from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Muhammad</span></a> through the line of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimah" title="Fatimah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Fāṭimah az-Zahrah</span></a>, Muhammad's daughter, and her husband, the Fourth <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Caliph</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali" title="Ali"><span style="color: #0645ad;">‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib</span></a>.<br />
According to some legends the Alaouites entered Morocco at the end of the 13th century when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Hassan_Addakhil"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Al Hassan Addakhil</span></a>, who lived then in the town of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanbu"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Yanbu</span></a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejaz"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Hejaz</span></a>, was brought to Morocco by the inhabitants of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafilalet" title="Tafilalet"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tafilalet</span></a> to be their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam" title="Imam"><span style="color: #0645ad;">imām</span></a>. They were hoping that, as he was a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharif" title="Sharif"><span style="color: #0645ad;">descendant of Muhammad</span></a>, his presence would help to improve their <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm"><span style="color: #0645ad;">date palm</span></a> crops thanks to his <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barakah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">barakah</span></a></i> "blessing", an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Arabic</span></a> term meaning a sense of divine presence or charisma. His descendants began to increase their power in southern Morocco after the death of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi_Dynasty" title="Saadi Dynasty"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Saʻdī</span></a> ruler <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Mansur"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ahmad al-Mansur</span></a> (1578–1603).<br />
In 1659, the last Saʻdī sultan was overthrown in the conquest of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakech"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Marrakech</span></a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Rashid_of_Morocco" title="Al-Rashid of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mulay r-Rshid</span></a> (1664–1672). After the victory over the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaouia" title="Zaouia"><span style="color: #0645ad;">zāwiya</span></a> of Dila, who controlled northern Morocco, he was able to unite and pacify the country.<br />
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Admiral <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdelkader_Perez"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Abdelkader Perez</span></a> was sent by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_Ibn_Sharif"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ismail Ibn Sharif</span></a> as ambassador to England in 1723.</div>
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The organization of the kingdom developed under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_Ibn_Sharif"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ismail Ibn Sharif</span></a> (1672–1727), who, against the opposition of local tribes began to create a unified state. Because the Alaouites, in contrast to previous dynasties, did not have the support of a single <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_people" title="Berber people"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Berber</span></a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedouin"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Bedouin</span></a> tribe, Isma'īl controlled Morocco through an army of black slaves. With these soldiers he drove the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" title="England"><span style="color: #0645ad;">English</span></a> from <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangiers" title="Tangiers"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tangiers</span></a> (1684) and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Spanish</span></a> from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larache"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Larache</span></a> (1689.) However, the unity of Morocco did not survive his death — in the ensuing power struggles the tribes became a political and military force once again.<br />
Only with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_III_of_Morocco" title="Mohammed III of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Muhammad III</span></a> (1757–1790) could the kingdom be pacified again and the administration reorganized. A renewed attempt at centralization was abandoned and the tribes allowed to preserve their autonomy.<br />
In 1777 Morocco was the very first state to recognize the sovereignty of a newly independent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"><span style="color: #0645ad;">United States</span></a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-6"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[7]</span></a></sup><br />
Under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abderrahmane_of_Morocco" title="Abderrahmane of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Abderrahmane</span></a> (1822–1859) Morocco fell under the influence of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe"><span style="color: #0645ad;">European</span></a> powers. When Morocco supported the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Algerian</span></a> independence movement of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emir"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Emir</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jaza%27iri" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Abd al-Qadir</span></a>, it was heavily defeated by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France"><span style="color: #0645ad;">French</span></a> in 1844 and made to abandon its support.<br />
From <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_IV_of_Morocco" title="Mohammed IV of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Muhammad IV</span></a> (1859–1873) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_I_of_Morocco" title="Hassan I of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Hassan I</span></a> (1873–1894) the Alaouites tried to foster trading links, above all with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe"><span style="color: #0645ad;">European</span></a> countries and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America" title="United States of America"><span style="color: #0645ad;">United States</span></a>. The army and administration were also modernized, to improve control over the Berber and Bedouin tribes. With the war against Spain (1859–1860) came direct involvement in European affairs — although the independence of Morocco was guaranteed in the <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conference_of_Madrid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Conference of Madrid (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Conference of Madrid</span></a> (1880),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-7"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[8]</span></a></sup> the French gained ever greater influence. German attempts to counter this growing influence led to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis"><span style="color: #0645ad;">First Moroccan Crisis</span></a> of 1905-1906 and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Moroccan_Crisis" title="Second Moroccan Crisis"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Second Moroccan Crisis</span></a> (1911.) Eventually the Moroccans were forced to recognise the French <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Protectorate</span></a> through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fez"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Treaty of Fez</span></a>, signed on December 3, 1912. At the same time the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rif</span></a> area of northern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"><span style="color: #0b0080;">Morocco</span></a> submitted to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Spain</span></a>.<br />
Under the protectorate (1912–1956) the infrastructure was invested in heavily in order to link the cities of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic" title="Atlantic"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Atlantic</span></a> coast to the hinterlandthus creating a single economic area for Morocco. However the regime faced the opposition of the tribes — when the Berber were required to come under the jurisdiction of French courts in 1930 it marked the beginning of the independence movement. In 1944, the independence party <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istiqlal_Party" title="Istiqlal Party"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Istiqlāl</span></a> was founded, supported by the Sultan <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_V_of_Morocco" title="Mohammed V of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Muhammad V</span></a> (1927–1961). Although banned in 1953, France was obliged to grant Morocco independence on March 2, 1956, leaving behind them a legacy of urbanisation and the beginnings of an industrial economy.<br />
<span class="mw-headline" id="European_influence"><strong><span style="color: blue;">European influence</span></strong></span><br />
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Despite the weakness of its authority, the Alaouite dynasty distinguished itself in the 18th and 19th centuries by maintaining Morocco’s independence while other states in the region succumbed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Turkish</span></a>, French, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">British</span></a> domination. However, in the latter part of the 19th century Morocco’s weakness and instability invited European intervention to protect threatened investments and to demand economic concessions. The first years of the 20th century witnessed a rush of diplomatic maneuvering through which the European powers and France in particular furthered their interests in North Africa.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-8"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[9]</span></a></sup> Disputes over Moroccan sovereignty were links in the chain of events that led to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"><span style="color: #0645ad;">World War I</span></a>.<br />
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Map of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Maghreb</span></a> before the French invasion of Algeria</div>
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The successful <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Portuguese</span></a> efforts to control the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Atlantic</span></a> coast in the 15th century did not affect the Mediterranean heart of Morocco. After the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Napoleonic Wars</span></a>, North Africa became increasingly ungovernable from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Istanbul</span></a> by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ottoman Empire</span></a>, the resort of pirates under local <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bey" title="Bey"><span style="color: #0645ad;">beys</span></a>, and as Europe industrialized, an increasingly prized potential for colonization.<br />
The Maghreb had far greater proven wealth than the unknown rest of Africa and a location of strategic importance affecting the exit from the Mediterranean. For the first time, Morocco became a state of some import to the European Powers. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"><span style="color: #0645ad;">France</span></a> showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830. Recognition by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"><span style="color: #0645ad;">United Kingdom</span></a> in the 1904 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Entente Cordiale</span></a> of France's "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_of_influence"><span style="color: #0645ad;">sphere of influence</span></a>" in Morocco provoked a German reaction; the "crisis" of 1905-1906 was resolved at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeciras_Conference"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Algeciras Conference</span></a> (1906), which formalized France's "special position" and entrusted policing of Morocco jointly to France and Spain.<br />
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The French <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery"><span style="color: #0645ad;">artillery</span></a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabat"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rabat</span></a> in 1911</div>
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A second "Moroccan crisis" provoked by Berlin, increased European Great Power tensions, but the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fez"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Treaty of Fez</span></a> (signed on March 30, 1912) made Morocco a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate"><span style="color: #0645ad;">protectorate</span></a> of France. By the same treaty, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Spain</span></a> assumed the role of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protecting_power"><span style="color: #0645ad;">protecting power</span></a> over the northern and southern (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifni"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ifni</span></a>) zones on November 27 that year. Spain was given control of pieces of Morocco in the far north (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Morocco" title="Spanish Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Protectorate of Tetuan</span></a>) and south (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Juby"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Cape Juby</span></a>). Tangier received special international status. From a strictly legal point of view, the treaty did not deprive Morocco of its status as a sovereign state. Theoretically, the sultan remained the sole source of sovereignty. He reigned, but he did not rule.<br />
Under the protectorate, French civil servants allied themselves with the French settlers (<i>colons</i>) and with their supporters in France to prevent any moves in the direction of Moroccan autonomy. As pacification proceeded, the French government promoted economic development, particularly the exploitation of Morocco’s mineral wealth, the creation of a modern transportation system, and the development of a modern agriculture sector geared to the French market. Tens of thousands of colons entered Morocco and bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco.<br />
<span class="mw-headline" id="Opposition_to_European_control"><strong><span style="background-color: white; color: blue;">Opposition to European control</span></strong></span><br />
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The separatist <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_the_Rif" title="Republic of the Rif"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Republic of the Rif</span></a> was declared on 18 September 1921, by the people of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rif</span></a>. It would be dissolved by Spanish and French forces on 27 May 1926.<br />
In December 1934, a small group of nationalists—members of the newly formed <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moroccan_Action_Committee&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Moroccan Action Committee (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Moroccan Action Committee</span></a> (<a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comit%C3%A9_d%E2%80%99Action_Marocaine&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Comité d’Action Marocaine (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Comité d’Action Marocaine</span></a>—CAM)—proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the Treaty of Fès, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils. The moderate tactics used by the CAM to obtain consideration of reform—petitions, newspaper editorials, and personal appeals to French officials—proved inadequate, and the tensions created in the CAM by the failure of the plan caused it to split. The CAM was reconstituted as a nationalist political party to gain mass support for more radical demands, but the French suppressed the party in 1937.<br />
Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on such <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"><span style="color: #0645ad;">World War II</span></a> declarations as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Charter"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Atlantic Charter</span></a> (a joint U.S.-British statement that set forth, among other things, the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live).<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQSPxEsPTzVKlzuAAh3sSdEM1h6IMaIn8pCBDoiDZtBwjso2Z6obYU4ZNSQUaQ-HMqH-vjHsrsojopgVAxg3NnR-Q4Ngdj_oZnMmkwKyhyGUViuvspyd-jCfCsDKxw7D8oVLSPrUU__W-W/s1600/abdelkrim.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQSPxEsPTzVKlzuAAh3sSdEM1h6IMaIn8pCBDoiDZtBwjso2Z6obYU4ZNSQUaQ-HMqH-vjHsrsojopgVAxg3NnR-Q4Ngdj_oZnMmkwKyhyGUViuvspyd-jCfCsDKxw7D8oVLSPrUU__W-W/s1600/abdelkrim.jpg" /></a><br />
Many Moroccan <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goumiere" title="Goumiere"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Goumiere</span></a> assisted the Americans in both <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"><span style="color: #0645ad;">World War I</span></a> and World War II. During World War II, the badly divided nationalist movement became more cohesive, and informed Moroccans dared to consider the real possibility of political change in the post-war era. However, the nationalists were disappointed in their belief that the Allied victory in Morocco would pave the way for independence. In January 1944, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istiqlal_Party" title="Istiqlal Party"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Istiqlal (Independence) Party</span></a>, which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released a manifesto demanding full independence, national reunification, and a democratic constitution. The sultan had approved the manifesto before its submission to the French resident general, who answered that no basic change in the protectorate status was being considered. The general sympathy of the sultan for the nationalists had become evident by the end of the war, although he still hoped to see complete independence achieved gradually. By contrast, the residency, supported by French economic interests and vigorously backed by most of the <i>colons</i>, adamantly refused to consider even reforms short of independence. Official intransigence contributed to increased animosity between the nationalists and the colons and gradually widened the split between the sultan and the resident general.<br />
In December 1952, a riot broke out in Casablanca over the murder of a Tunisian labor leader; this event marked a watershed in relations between Moroccan political parties and French authorities. In the aftermath of the rioting, the residency outlawed the new Moroccan Communist Party and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istiqlal"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Istiqlal</span></a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LOCprof_9-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-LOCprof-9"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[10]</span></a></sup><br />
France's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exile"><span style="color: #0645ad;">exile</span></a> of the highly respected <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed_V" title="Sultan Mohammed V"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sultan Mohammed V</span></a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Madagascar</span></a> in 1953 and his replacement by the unpopular <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Ben_Aarafa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mohammed Ben Aarafa</span></a>, whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the French protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader. Two years later, faced with a united Moroccan demand for the sultan’s return, rising violence in Morocco, and the deteriorating situation in Algeria, the French government brought Mohammed V back to Morocco. The negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year.<br />
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Independence_in_1956"><span style="color: purple;">Independence in 1956</span></span></h2>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Casablanca</span></a> in 1950s</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Mohammed_V"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mausoleum of Mohammed V</span></a> in Rabat</div>
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independence within a framework of French-Moroccan interdependence. The sultan agreed to institute reforms that would transform Morocco into a constitutional monarchy with a democratic form of government. In February 1956, Morocco acquired limited home rule. Further negotiations for full independence culminated in the Spanish-Moroccan Agreement signed in Paris on March 2, 1956.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LOCprof_9-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-LOCprof-9"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[10]</span></a></sup> On April 7 of that year France officially relinquished its protectorate in Morocco. The internationalized city of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangier"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tangier</span></a> was reintegrated with the signing of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangier_Protocol"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tangier Protocol</span></a> on October 29, 1956. The abolition of the Spanish protectorate and the recognition of Moroccan independence by Spain were negotiated separately and made final in the Joint Declaration of April 1956.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LOCprof_9-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-LOCprof-9"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[10]</span></a></sup> Through this agreement with Spain in 1956 and another in 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored, though attempts to claim other Spanish possessions through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War"><span style="color: #0645ad;">military action</span></a> were less successful. Almost all speakers of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Judeo-Berber language</span></a> left Morocco in the years following its independence.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW8rlPYgYjs9pOklxhPq7v7y-ZykxIaXmvV_54tpBsW3qnJXbDSQoj64jAXnEqYo4CVZBa3LVZquMKSMK2zEPKD5AQStEH-eLAXzPCB9IbC4pW7u27JzI6DWcijvR8ZjEpJMk7Ir0aQtvs/s1600/casa.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW8rlPYgYjs9pOklxhPq7v7y-ZykxIaXmvV_54tpBsW3qnJXbDSQoj64jAXnEqYo4CVZBa3LVZquMKSMK2zEPKD5AQStEH-eLAXzPCB9IbC4pW7u27JzI6DWcijvR8ZjEpJMk7Ir0aQtvs/s1600/casa.bmp" /></a><br />
In the months that followed independence, Mohammed V proceeded to build a modern governmental structure under a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy"><span style="color: #0645ad;">constitutional monarchy</span></a> in which the sultan would exercise an active political role. He acted cautiously, having no intention of permitting more radical elements in the nationalist movement to overthrow the established order. He was also intent on preventing the Istiqlal from consolidating its control and establishing a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-party_state"><span style="color: #0645ad;">single-party state</span></a>. In August 1957, Mohammed V assumed the title of king.</div>
In late 1955, Mohammed V successfully negotiated the gradual restoration of Moroccan <br />
<span class="mw-headline" id="The_reign_of_Hassan_II"><strong><span style="color: blue;">The reign of Hassan II<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhv00JGHapcBqPz8Z1rLOsUeLqXQwUAXsFBe80_V9y9ONW_W-FaQ6CTJfuFC56FqFSynFz_zssi1Kkk2l5ovaMVGoYE39tShtgm8AENeQz3Edx4coxUrPbBMk3radb7FmqHtsM2MFNkfYNJ/s1600/image%255B1%255D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhv00JGHapcBqPz8Z1rLOsUeLqXQwUAXsFBe80_V9y9ONW_W-FaQ6CTJfuFC56FqFSynFz_zssi1Kkk2l5ovaMVGoYE39tShtgm8AENeQz3Edx4coxUrPbBMk3radb7FmqHtsM2MFNkfYNJ/s1600/image%255B1%255D.jpg" /></a></span></strong></span><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_II_of_Morocco" title="Hassan II of Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Hassan II</span></a> became King of Morocco on March 3, 1961. His rule would be marked by political unrest, and the ruthless government response earned the period the name "the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Morocco)" title="Years of Lead (Morocco)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">years of lead</span></a>". The new king took personal control of the government as prime minister and named a new cabinet. Aided by an advisory council, he drew up a new constitution, which was approved overwhelmingly in a December 1962 referendum. Under its provisions, the king remained the central figure in the executive branch of the government, but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, and an independent judiciary was guaranteed. In May 1963, legislative elections took place for the first time, and the royalist coalition secured a small plurality of seats. However, following a period of political upheaval in June 1965, Hassan II assumed full legislative and executive powers under a “state of exception,” which remained in effect until 1970. Subsequently, a reform constitution was approved, restoring limited parliamentary government, and new elections were held. However, dissent remained, revolving around complaints of widespread corruption and malfeasance in government. In July 1971 and again in August 1972, the regime was challenged by two attempted military coups. The atmosphere in the country remained tense.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvBixYOL_PIYmqY-8rAABL8wU3pkq9BII1-v_W6a7LkL5DdGAOpJMuYuiD5q9uX5Pd_W1boTGQvml6hqeKTCxV6u19Gbmde8NVKMIdyAuHTyLK_DHCjKwh2Uq-aGdnZuo2ix6rWMCXiKHd/s1600/casablanca.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvBixYOL_PIYmqY-8rAABL8wU3pkq9BII1-v_W6a7LkL5DdGAOpJMuYuiD5q9uX5Pd_W1boTGQvml6hqeKTCxV6u19Gbmde8NVKMIdyAuHTyLK_DHCjKwh2Uq-aGdnZuo2ix6rWMCXiKHd/s1600/casablanca.bmp" /></a><br />
After neighbouring <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Algeria</span></a>'s 1962 independence from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"><span style="color: #0645ad;">France</span></a>, border skirmishes in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tindouf_Province" title="Tindouf Province"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tindouf area</span></a> of south-western Algeria, escalated in 1963 into what is known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_War"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sand War</span></a>. Morocco invaded to claim the areas for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Greater Morocco</span></a>, but the fighting stalemated within weeks, and Morocco was forced to retreat with no border adjustments. The border remained a contentious issue, but was later demarcated, and Morocco no longer makes any formal claim on Algerian territory.<br />
<strong><span style="color: blue;"> Sahara conflict<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9AMylL83tijepvUctSUawPuKAeGv8NctjHht5PW0mWzPFI1JSE45vyNBpAST_KqvAtLEa-8gckjVRFtDTy_WKeGQRFHRIgPVtnxvMZuBWV1vc2KNGKOiTR8S30QQrAyb3wpMGugai2Gsm/s1600/s_morocco_yasmina%255B1%255D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9AMylL83tijepvUctSUawPuKAeGv8NctjHht5PW0mWzPFI1JSE45vyNBpAST_KqvAtLEa-8gckjVRFtDTy_WKeGQRFHRIgPVtnxvMZuBWV1vc2KNGKOiTR8S30QQrAyb3wpMGugai2Gsm/s1600/s_morocco_yasmina%255B1%255D.jpg" /></a></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="color: blue;"> </span></strong><br />
Morocco then annexed the entire territory and, in 1985, built a 2,500-kilometer sand berm around three-quarters of it. In 1988, Morocco and the Polisario Front finally agreed on a United Nations (UN) peace plan, and a cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect in 1991. Even though the UN Security Council created a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peacekeeping"><span style="color: #0645ad;">peacekeeping</span></a> force to implement a referendum on self-determination for Western Sahara, it has yet to be held, periodic negotiations have failed, and the status of the territory remains unresolved.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmNqP6vfW3xK_4jZoBLYoaj91OAWfLH9gkiMUHpiv3y-4xyBIP6Z4HLu6tzZFdyNMMv80Xmz0Ft_yd2LKL3lW1lJJfpu1w6zaoUUZjTNY4zVDp5mcfTBMMd0iPdkfiotE3fDzlxEFxtpxG/s1600/touareg1.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmNqP6vfW3xK_4jZoBLYoaj91OAWfLH9gkiMUHpiv3y-4xyBIP6Z4HLu6tzZFdyNMMv80Xmz0Ft_yd2LKL3lW1lJJfpu1w6zaoUUZjTNY4zVDp5mcfTBMMd0iPdkfiotE3fDzlxEFxtpxG/s1600/touareg1.bmp" /></a><br />
More than any other issue since independence, the objective of securing Western Sahara had unified the Moroccan nation. Because of the firm stand the king had taken, it also enhanced his popularity in the country. But the war against the Polisario <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrillas" title="Guerrillas"><span style="color: #0645ad;">guerrillas</span></a> put severe strains on the economy, and Morocco found itself increasingly isolated diplomatically. Successive governments showed little inclination to move seriously against pressing economic and social issues. As a result, popular discontent with social and economic conditions persisted. Political parties continued to proliferate but produced only a divided and weakly organized opposition or were suppressed. Through the force of his strong personality, the legacy of the monarchy, and the application of political repression, the king succeeded in asserting his authority and controlling the forces threatening the existing social order.<br />
<a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a><br />
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<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenicia" title="Phenicia"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Phenician</span></a> plate with red <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_(ceramics)" title="Slip (ceramics)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">slip</span></a>, 7th century BCE, excavated in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogador_island"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mogador island</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essaouira"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Essaouira</span></a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidi_Mohammed_ben_Abdallah_Museum"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum</span></a>.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Phoenician</span></a> traders, who had penetrated the western Mediterranean before the 12th century BC, set up depots for salt and ore along the coast and up the rivers of the territory that is now Morocco. The arrival of Phoenicians heralded many centuries of rule by foreign powers for the north of Morocco. Major early substantial settlements of the Phoenicians were at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chellah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Chellah</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lixus"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Lixus</span></a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogador" title="Mogador"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mogador</span></a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-1"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[2]</span></a></sup> with Mogador being a Phoenician colony as early as the early 6th century BC.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-2"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[3]</span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Carthage</span></a> developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes of the interior and paid them an annual tribute to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgVHI_rIieFL07Xo2sGZ5A-Hm4T-ymsIxt46JPs2QZwH_EJkdQhYLvgM0EWZXP1SxmOC0rgiAFf2pa8WgNXZNdiQ0z7-bdh9NcYt7-z-JMjBMuBTaisbV_tgd0wLpN-8pP2Nqp1lzPeMVz/s1600/juba1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgVHI_rIieFL07Xo2sGZ5A-Hm4T-ymsIxt46JPs2QZwH_EJkdQhYLvgM0EWZXP1SxmOC0rgiAFf2pa8WgNXZNdiQ0z7-bdh9NcYt7-z-JMjBMuBTaisbV_tgd0wLpN-8pP2Nqp1lzPeMVz/s1600/juba1.jpg" /></a><br />
By the 5th century BC, Carthage had extended its hegemony across much of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">North Africa</span></a>. By the 2nd century BC, several large, although loosely administered, Berber kingdoms had emerged.<br />
<span class="mw-headline" id="Roman.2C_and_sub-Roman_Morocco"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Roman, and sub-Roman Morocco<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzlJsMn6Qek-aTC_YN-PcrujP4n5ZgkF56Sjqm3ProStAiuU8ti7p8pGwNod45ShYkd58N0yP2OKDib5tMux1whoUCtoCjd5z7wRX9IQ4TX0HYAi1EYiy78540d3CpZLxW8JKI6B5wygTK/s1600/berber+curency.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzlJsMn6Qek-aTC_YN-PcrujP4n5ZgkF56Sjqm3ProStAiuU8ti7p8pGwNod45ShYkd58N0yP2OKDib5tMux1whoUCtoCjd5z7wRX9IQ4TX0HYAi1EYiy78540d3CpZLxW8JKI6B5wygTK/s1600/berber+curency.jpg" /></a></span></strong></span><br />
<span class="mw-headline">Initially the Berber kings ruled overshadowing Carthage and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rome</span></a> (roman rulers actually referred to these people as semi-gods), often as satellites, allowing Roman rulership to exist.</span><span class="mw-headline"> </span><br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Roman</span></a> coins excavated in Essaouira, 3rd century.</div>
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But after the fall of Carthage, the area was annexed to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Roman Empire</span></a> in AD 40. Rome controlled the vast, ill-defined territory through alliances with the tribes rather than through military occupation, expanding its authority only to those areas that were economically useful or that could be defended without additional manpower. Hence, Roman administration never extended outside the restricted area of the northern coastal plain and valleys. This strategic region formed part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Roman Empire</span></a>, governed as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauretania_Tingitana"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mauretania Tingitana</span></a>.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNvV71ZdIhKk3BFPrIaOHcLl2LpHnGOReCWteF568A3odCsA3-94Gri8XI9TKWnXvDyr9gPYMNCuKJUhGZYDYbtflHoMtEbBC7VWCcgXUhYoU78VCgwvH1dUx0T_VW3B2pdg5eA3M3dRmB/s1600/yougarta.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNvV71ZdIhKk3BFPrIaOHcLl2LpHnGOReCWteF568A3odCsA3-94Gri8XI9TKWnXvDyr9gPYMNCuKJUhGZYDYbtflHoMtEbBC7VWCcgXUhYoU78VCgwvH1dUx0T_VW3B2pdg5eA3M3dRmB/s1600/yougarta.jpg" /></a><br />
Roman historians (like <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemeus" title="Ptolemeus"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ptolemeus</span></a>) considered that all actual Morocco until the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_mountains" title="Atlas mountains"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Atlas mountains</span></a> was part of the Roman Empire, because in the Augustus times Mauretania was a vassal state and his rulers (like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_II"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Juba II</span></a>) controlled all the areas south of Volubilis.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjN4qXahWbKPO59IakOjaRQSrIb1d2GvCeT9fuGFUSOgaPr055Br0raJXzvFdTjLupbQWHMyZNmRHs-QgUbKRCANx2sBN5R0STB_8JfstTj-XyGAg_TIHTBOsl04Kw4JoElQBqoL1iAgowm/s1600/juba2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjN4qXahWbKPO59IakOjaRQSrIb1d2GvCeT9fuGFUSOgaPr055Br0raJXzvFdTjLupbQWHMyZNmRHs-QgUbKRCANx2sBN5R0STB_8JfstTj-XyGAg_TIHTBOsl04Kw4JoElQBqoL1iAgowm/s1600/juba2.jpg" /></a> But the effective control of Roman legionaries was until the area of Sala Colonia (the castra "Exploratio Ad Mercurios" south of Sala is the southernmost discovered until now). Anyway some historians believe the Roman frontier reached actual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Casablanca</span></a>, founded by Romans as a port.<br />
During the reign of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_II"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Juba II</span></a> Emperor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Augustus</span></a> (who created in the area of what is now northern Morocco 12 colonies with retired Roman legionaries) had already founded three <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia" title="Colonia"><span style="color: #0645ad;">colonias</span></a> (with Roman citizens) in Mauretania close to the Atlantic coast: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iulia_Constantia_Zilil"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Iulia Constantia Zilil</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iulia_Valentia_Banasa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Iulia Valentia Banasa</span></a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-3"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[4]</span></a></sup> and Iulia Campestris Babba.<br />
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Roman remains of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volubilis"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Volubilis</span></a></div>
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This western part of Mauretania was to become the province called Mauretania Tingitana shortly afterwards, with capital the rich emporium of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volubilis"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Volubilis</span></a>.<br />
In those centuries, the area controlled by Rome had a huge economic development, helped even by the construction of useful <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads_in_Morocco" title="Roman roads in Morocco"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Roman roads</span></a>. The area was initially fully under control of Rome and only in the mid-2nd century was built a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limes"><span style="color: #0645ad;">limes</span></a> south of Sala and until Volubilis.<br />
Roman control reached even the area of actual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Casablanca</span></a>, then called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anfa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Anfa</span></a> according to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Africanus"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Leo Africanus</span></a>: it was used as a port by the Phoenicians and later the Romans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-lexic_4-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-lexic-4"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[5]</span></a></sup><br />
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<i>In his book “Wasf Afriquia” Hassan Al Wazan (nicknamed Leo Africanus) refers to "Anfa" (ancient Casablanca) as a great city which was founded by the Romans. He also believed that Anfa was the most prosperous city on the Atlantic coast because of its fertile land.</i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco#cite_note-5"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[6]</span></a></sup></div>
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Around 278 AD Romans moved their regional capital to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanger" title="Tanger"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tanger</span></a> and Volubilis started to loss importance.<br />
The region remained a part of the Roman Empire until 429 AD as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Vandals</span></a> overran the area and Roman administrative presence came to an end.</div>
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-19720398966900006132011-03-05T19:30:00.000-05:002015-12-24T14:49:25.210-05:00The Kingdom of Morocco<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0"> Morocco</span></span></b><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0"> (</span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">Arabic</span></span></a><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">: </span></span><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">المغرب</span></span></span><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">, </span></span><i><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">al-Maġrib</span></span></i><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">), officially the </span></span><b><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">Kingdom of Morocco</span></span></b><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco#cite_note-3">[4]</a></sup> (<span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">المملكة المغربية, </span></span><i><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">al-Mamlakah al-Maġribiyya</span></span></i><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">), is a country located in </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">North Africa</span></span></a><span class="goog_qs-tidbit-0"><span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-0">.</span></span> It has a population of nearly 33 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Sahara">Western Sahara</a>. It is a part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb">Maghreb</a> region, besides <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania">Mauritania</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya">Libya</a>, with whom it shares cultural, historical, and linguistic ties.<br />
Morocco is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive powers, including dissolving parliament at will. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_power" title="Executive power">Executive power</a> is exercised by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_government" title="Moroccan government">government</a> but more importantly by the king himself. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative_power" title="Legislative power">Legislative power</a> is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_of_Representatives_of_Morocco" title="Assembly of Representatives of Morocco">Assembly of Representatives</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_of_Councillors">Assembly of Councillors</a>. The king can also issue decrees called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahir" title="Dahir">dahirs</a> which have the force of law. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_Morocco" title="Elections in Morocco">Parliamentary elections</a> were held in Morocco on 7 September 2007, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair; although voter turnout was estimated to be 37%, the lowest in decades. The political capital is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabat">Rabat</a>, and the largest city is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca">Casablanca</a>; other large cities include <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetouan" title="Tetouan">Tetouan</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangier">Tangier</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal%C3%A9">Salé</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes">Fes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agadir">Agadir</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meknes">Meknes</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oujda">Oujda</a>.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiE8xbbAIABuRgmdcczrXfjNw_YkJcE5SPvS8zn0w0XqQki5BGas3LcWdZ-Pg5Ih0mJGp-9cBj13RdefQCTHY9n6ihsO65g4AP78W2cIo6HlJnuakocmBMFSGdSjUpL_BA84h0bxUO2NJpQ/s1600/220px-Twincenter.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiE8xbbAIABuRgmdcczrXfjNw_YkJcE5SPvS8zn0w0XqQki5BGas3LcWdZ-Pg5Ih0mJGp-9cBj13RdefQCTHY9n6ihsO65g4AP78W2cIo6HlJnuakocmBMFSGdSjUpL_BA84h0bxUO2NJpQ/s1600/220px-Twincenter.jpg" /></a><br />
The population is a mix of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a> speaking a dialect of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> with many regional dialects. Berber-speaking Moroccans can be divided in three main dialectal groups: the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riffians" title="Riffians">Riffians</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chleuh" title="Chleuh">Chleuh</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight" title="Central Atlas Tamazight">Central Moroccan Atlas</a> inhabitants.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwuVkGNNoSASEQQwXoBsgnkeUBKCGlt3q6mrF9CsWnR3jo9k_hWjMW83bj_vMQEn2_IkwPvr1FrK9bbeIThHoFB6tO1kVS9c3fW1XOP8jeJ1hNLuj5EiytxydxM9tKHociLvJoolfEVdSx/s1600/135px-Casablanca_-_Morocco_008.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwuVkGNNoSASEQQwXoBsgnkeUBKCGlt3q6mrF9CsWnR3jo9k_hWjMW83bj_vMQEn2_IkwPvr1FrK9bbeIThHoFB6tO1kVS9c3fW1XOP8jeJ1hNLuj5EiytxydxM9tKHociLvJoolfEVdSx/s1600/135px-Casablanca_-_Morocco_008.jpg" /></a><br />
<span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><br />
<span class="mw-headline">The full <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Arabic</span></a> name <i>al-Mamlaka al-Maġribiyya</i> (المملكة المغربية) translates to "The Western Kingdom". <i>Al-Maġrib</i> (meaning "The West") is commonly used. For historical references, medieval Arab historians and geographers used to refer to Morocco as <i>Al-Maghrib al Aqşá</i> ("The Farthest West"), disambiguating it from neighboring historical regions called <i>al-Maghrib al Awsat</i> ("The Middle West", <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Algeria</span></a>) and <i>al-Maghrib al Adna</i> ("The Nearest West", <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tunisia</span></a>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco#cite_note-4"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[5]</span></a></sup><br />
The English name "Morocco" originates from Spanish "Marruecos" or the Portuguese "Marrocos", from medieval <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language" title="Latin language"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Latin</span></a> "Morroch", which referred to the name of the former <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid" title="Almoravid"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Almoravid</span></a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad" title="Almohad"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Almohad</span></a> capital, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Marrakesh</span></a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco#cite_note-5"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[6]</span></a></sup> In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Persian</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urdu"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Urdu</span></a>, Morocco is still called "Marrakesh". Until recent decades, Morocco was called "Marrakesh" in Middle Eastern Arabic. In Turkish, Morocco is called "Fas" which comes from the ancient <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrisid" title="Idrisid"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Idrisid</span></a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid" title="Marinid"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Marinid</span></a> capital, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Fez</span></a>.<br />
The word "Marrakesh" is derived from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Berber</span></a> word combination <i>Mur-Akuc</i> (pronounced: Moor Akush) (ⵎⵓⵔ-ⴰⴽⵓⵛ), meaning <i>Land of God</i>.</span></div>
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-67658968570325312102011-03-05T19:10:00.000-05:002015-12-18T16:43:37.955-05:00Agadir Beautyful Town In Morocco<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<strong><span style="color: blue;">Agadir Morocco</span></strong></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4s4T6XlLgQ0P1UtBJf46ucmwLt-5EBzcjkoM68UNpezZRe_iX1LLHXCt99dsB6ojeKu36BrRiGGg34gHV3Wpw9cxxdBYYVvAmdVo2eJg0ZAsfDldihjeuaoPxtssJKLfAeAJu8mNvdRpN/s1600/SOUK.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="94" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4s4T6XlLgQ0P1UtBJf46ucmwLt-5EBzcjkoM68UNpezZRe_iX1LLHXCt99dsB6ojeKu36BrRiGGg34gHV3Wpw9cxxdBYYVvAmdVo2eJg0ZAsfDldihjeuaoPxtssJKLfAeAJu8mNvdRpN/s320/SOUK.bmp" width="125" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDY9pPl3inZyqF7J8HcKaFokMICiBgIoKJXzs_cUXnzTdfRc_u7qG5acSavZl4kiwVmi8k3jvSYvNypJIB5xG31rPSbzzIBv4xRW5jY5BuWnZHCB8aiyqIbqAFiRRPeNi0WPhOBjRplYlK/s1600/agadir1.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDY9pPl3inZyqF7J8HcKaFokMICiBgIoKJXzs_cUXnzTdfRc_u7qG5acSavZl4kiwVmi8k3jvSYvNypJIB5xG31rPSbzzIBv4xRW5jY5BuWnZHCB8aiyqIbqAFiRRPeNi0WPhOBjRplYlK/s1600/agadir1.bmp" /></a> Agadir, one of Morocco most iconic travel destinations and home to an amazing array of sights, activities and events. Even first time visitors to Agadir will quickly be enthralled by how fun and fascinating Agadir really can be. For those looking a glimpse of the real Morocco, or just a fun night out, Agadir mixes old world charm with a modern and vibrant night life. Click the general information links below for further information. </div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLyzsFUUos9TrK2_CR2B4d8mQeQdgyMnLkg1h0BzKFbafIJo4VXbbQsS-v35_KjbEWRCtdL1bayFMPS8aMntP9R8bXxO0PV6BvL1FZdxT_t9CIkEhxF30pwZK5Jo7yEn99E6O5MRy-MMtp/s1600/agadir.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLyzsFUUos9TrK2_CR2B4d8mQeQdgyMnLkg1h0BzKFbafIJo4VXbbQsS-v35_KjbEWRCtdL1bayFMPS8aMntP9R8bXxO0PV6BvL1FZdxT_t9CIkEhxF30pwZK5Jo7yEn99E6O5MRy-MMtp/s1600/agadir.bmp" /></a>Agadir is popular for one thing: its beach. The lovely crescent Agadir Bay runs for nine kilometres around the edge of town and is truly one of Morocco’s nicest beaches. Golden sand and a relatively sheltered bay make this an ideal place to create a beach tourist destination; indeed Agadir is Morocco’s premier beach resort.</div>
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devastating earthquake in 1960 levelled most of Agadir so there’s very little historic evidence of old Agadir. The hilltop Kasbah is the best place in town to get an idea of what the city may have looked like before the quake. For a taste of authentic Moroccan life, you’ll need to make the short trip to nearby towns like Tiznit or Taghazout. <br />
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Most of the action in Agadir happens at the city beach. A lovely promenade runs much of its length and is lined with hotels, restaurants and shops. There are plenty of watersports, and if you need something more exotic try a camel ride or a yacht cruise along the coast. There’s even good surfing down the coast at Taghazout.<br />
Being a total resort town, Agadir has plenty of excellent and diverse dining options. Chances are your resort or hotel will have a couple of great choices. Otherwise, head downtown and explore some of the traditional Moroccan joints that serve local dishes at great prices. Seafood is naturally a standout choice at just about every venue<br />
Agadir’s climate is typically Mediterranean, with hot dry conditions throughout most of the year except during the winter months when temperatures cool off a bit. Agadir’s seaside location helps temper the Moroccan heat thanks to southwest trade winds that provide a fairly reliable breeze. Its peak tourist seasons are over the winter and in the summer holidays.<img border="0" height="91" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFPX6q3IQHsFX7oBDVlMLnnJVfqKWg1Pj6y70iCtQ1Ev2Z89SYS-OIiIbF0RIv44lj3_h3j-NdhB55dQn7pB6dOz7MkqMSDnNGu-ZFRZNj_ArTjaSSSuN4vogyU3Fs_5vM45RHmFQ4c2AY/s320/agadir+by+night.bmp" width="143" /><br />
Most of the precipitation in Agadir falls between September and March, which is also this seaside town’s most unpredictable season. Days can quickly change from perfect blue skies and pleasant temperatures to very windy dry conditions. December is typically when the rains begin in earnest, providing some welcome relief from the dry heat until March. Winter temperatures in Agadir average a lovely 21oC.<br />
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-35939692369462387342011-03-05T13:22:00.000-05:002011-03-05T13:22:43.256-05:00Moroccan cuisine Gastronomy<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Moroccan Gastronomy</span></strong></div><br />
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<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div id="body" jquery1299348064796="88"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqBiiwfWUPk8mc36IddNPA4G2KLq9XIJoz9AFTjrIKfiGF6ch2gdvlomUsAm28X5KCp6NBDOrSnnZFwDRLFvxmz4x7Hwv4kOk4RGpO1ifJEC741Ii52Jg5-E-J_fxPJ5T7ZFdUha1MOD8d/s1600/maroc+sasn+complexes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="130" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqBiiwfWUPk8mc36IddNPA4G2KLq9XIJoz9AFTjrIKfiGF6ch2gdvlomUsAm28X5KCp6NBDOrSnnZFwDRLFvxmz4x7Hwv4kOk4RGpO1ifJEC741Ii52Jg5-E-J_fxPJ5T7ZFdUha1MOD8d/s320/maroc+sasn+complexes.jpg" width="110" /></a> <strong><span style="color: blue;">Bastilla</span></strong></div><br />
<div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrqfdezHb78ShyphenhyphentTqMznB7n-KFhc3dcbgSHb1A1wMOvqfqAjG5J_E625kds4QoXPKG4Ga-gQg__qA95SFUx1APaesgpHSCZWvyD3MCBnBnuMzzhHDvQaDCt0bgyVUFf5jMoFi-VClZgUEn/s1600/005039.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrqfdezHb78ShyphenhyphentTqMznB7n-KFhc3dcbgSHb1A1wMOvqfqAjG5J_E625kds4QoXPKG4Ga-gQg__qA95SFUx1APaesgpHSCZWvyD3MCBnBnuMzzhHDvQaDCt0bgyVUFf5jMoFi-VClZgUEn/s1600/005039.jpg" /></a> </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Moroccan tea</span></strong></div><br />
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</div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtMjkE3SOToPS9XvOY7oSnof0WDCIiZtx4m8v6bd-5yRAAwg91BUroowW8Ay92Kyvr_evlRixV2fyWm4uZg_rSp3Cq4TOn0HJxMHodpF2zmDtFewfGgkoBcE3XJGGogh3eDrkZegL7iEVn/s1600/argan+oil+for+eating.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtMjkE3SOToPS9XvOY7oSnof0WDCIiZtx4m8v6bd-5yRAAwg91BUroowW8Ay92Kyvr_evlRixV2fyWm4uZg_rSp3Cq4TOn0HJxMHodpF2zmDtFewfGgkoBcE3XJGGogh3eDrkZegL7iEVn/s1600/argan+oil+for+eating.jpg" /></a> </div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><br />
</div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgh76u_AVG2I9_dOIXwEtxAN88RNuK1IDGWKxLRlBaFZbHNA4ssc56282vnT21AE_gBT1erZrc-_K7Wb6JIdQeBIZD272KW1YTrxkpywcFOGjDE63KLCwlXC8yyNwg4Sc7FDKUByINN0ppP/s1600/ispi051116.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgh76u_AVG2I9_dOIXwEtxAN88RNuK1IDGWKxLRlBaFZbHNA4ssc56282vnT21AE_gBT1erZrc-_K7Wb6JIdQeBIZD272KW1YTrxkpywcFOGjDE63KLCwlXC8yyNwg4Sc7FDKUByINN0ppP/s1600/ispi051116.jpg" /></a> <strong><span style="color: #bf9000;">Argan oil for eating</span></strong></div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijHZWe7WWpweecYjz0XB_e7PnTsbBm8gGwOcNbLp0SmR7J94sgCBa7vH9STm7Nzpgmu5tEL2ogYYBZ6c_t0udW_HClDsoVdHyGbXHhkY-hw0LKNMX0dsDvhu0f3qYaxh8nFulSkDNog3ug/s1600/moroccan+gastronomy.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijHZWe7WWpweecYjz0XB_e7PnTsbBm8gGwOcNbLp0SmR7J94sgCBa7vH9STm7Nzpgmu5tEL2ogYYBZ6c_t0udW_HClDsoVdHyGbXHhkY-hw0LKNMX0dsDvhu0f3qYaxh8nFulSkDNog3ug/s1600/moroccan+gastronomy.bmp" /></a></div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPYS02QzC_vM_305BT_Tnupgi1p-8N-9jo0uy6PyYIo98o4-Q6GUHdabkK3fmFO2t62dAM_v82bgm8lSMS4GlXE_EYhj2qfuXjV6oUvyi8dpASHOZLM8CdPV9OmlB776O7GJ4kTaOypYQw/s1600/926819.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPYS02QzC_vM_305BT_Tnupgi1p-8N-9jo0uy6PyYIo98o4-Q6GUHdabkK3fmFO2t62dAM_v82bgm8lSMS4GlXE_EYhj2qfuXjV6oUvyi8dpASHOZLM8CdPV9OmlB776O7GJ4kTaOypYQw/s1600/926819.jpg" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie-JKoGOsD50X_KBdFMSb7NWVXHMXNB4-k-YSH97VC-5zKDYUqcxFfBToBA1TMUpGgVp6CfvGf29fJ-JfuPTaHnToW61lDPYzv2Fr3wO0oHTNML4tNgbfhdQeT9fFN_6NQFQ7MCERTgQi4/s1600/Tagine.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie-JKoGOsD50X_KBdFMSb7NWVXHMXNB4-k-YSH97VC-5zKDYUqcxFfBToBA1TMUpGgVp6CfvGf29fJ-JfuPTaHnToW61lDPYzv2Fr3wO0oHTNML4tNgbfhdQeT9fFN_6NQFQ7MCERTgQi4/s1600/Tagine.bmp" /></a> Moroccan cuisine is considered one of the most eminent cuisines in the world, because it has an international dimension, due to its richness and its variety. Moroccan cuisine is the result of many influences, including European, Amazigh Berber, Arab, Moorish, etc. In this article, I will focus on what is specific to Moroccan cuisine and I will mention some Moroccan meals, cakes, and some kinds of bread.</div><b>What is specific to Moroccan cuisine?</b> <br />
Moroccan cuisine is very famous, especially because Moroccan people rely on natural sources. <br />
First, we should note that the majority of Moroccans use natural oils, such as olive oil and argan oil, which can not be found in any place in the world. Also, the use of spices such as salt and pepper, ginger, turmeric, saffron, paprika, cumin, cinnamon or white pepper is essential to Moroccan gastronomy.<br />
Moreover, Moroccan people prefer to use aromatic plants and natural herbs like onions, garlic, basil, parsley, green coriander, marjoram, mint, grey verbena and za'atar especially with tea and as decoration.<br />
Moroccan cuisine also uses different kinds of meats: chicken, lamb, goat's meat, beef, camel, etc. Also, thanks Morocco's geographical position, there is a great variety of fish that plays an important in Moroccan cuisine and gives Moroccans a chance to concoct numerous meals in which fish is the most important element.<br />
<b>What are the most famous Moroccan meals?</b> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEJD9G_XnU4LrJLIlGMMa40FTGwAKSE6KfU_xM-Cnq-G2f-D8tS5OwG_NYiOYXCG-QWt9P_7QfpOi9a_1ROV7nYp3faHIpVEFtSJhSMykalIurqLWkgtl0cCI25fQKcABJrZfVkheqXubJ/s1600/927096.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEJD9G_XnU4LrJLIlGMMa40FTGwAKSE6KfU_xM-Cnq-G2f-D8tS5OwG_NYiOYXCG-QWt9P_7QfpOi9a_1ROV7nYp3faHIpVEFtSJhSMykalIurqLWkgtl0cCI25fQKcABJrZfVkheqXubJ/s1600/927096.jpg" /></a><span style="color: purple;"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Seafood</span></strong> </span>In Morocco, you will get the chance to enjoy many meals: <br />
First, we have couscous, which is one of the most famous Moroccan meals. It is the favourite meal for the majority of Moroccans on Friday's lunch and on the night of <i>achoura</i> (a month after the "aid al adha").<br />
There are many kinds of couscous. For example, there is the couscous with seven vegetables, couscous with <i>kourdass</i>, sugary couscous or seffa, etc. Also, the Moroccan traditional <i>tajin</i> can be prepared with fish or different kinds of meats (chicken, lamb, goat, beef and camel) or vegetables. Adding to that, there are many other Moroccan meals, like <i>attanjya</i>, <i>pastilla</i>, <i>baddaz</i>, skewers, etc.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCw_JjCMaE58mgl8SbsegR38UE8r5ybh-0fmCllnGtHVAXlvEBVNVUzFQUQNuKgMVx92UFZDPhN5-NysoFON434OFHs7Y6RCQeURUwjaX31ocpHLtXSOdd1LwAnhvyTmx5exc0-GltVVEk/s1600/chcken+tagine.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCw_JjCMaE58mgl8SbsegR38UE8r5ybh-0fmCllnGtHVAXlvEBVNVUzFQUQNuKgMVx92UFZDPhN5-NysoFON434OFHs7Y6RCQeURUwjaX31ocpHLtXSOdd1LwAnhvyTmx5exc0-GltVVEk/s1600/chcken+tagine.jpg" /></a><span style="color: blue;">Chicken Tagine</span><br />
<b>Some kinds of traditional Moroccan bread</b> <br />
There very different types of traditional bread in Morocco. The best known bread is the one from <i>tafarnout</i>, which is prepared in a traditional way with the use of a traditional oven that is build from clay. But there are also many other kinds of Moroccan bread, namely the <i>r'ghayef</i>, <i>l'mlawi</i>, <i>l'harcha</i>, <i>l'batbot</i>, etc.<br />
<b>Some famous Moroccan cakes</b> <br />
In Morocco, you can enjoy different cakes and sweets, such as <i>l'briouat</i>, which consists of puff pastry stuffed with almonds and perfumed with rose-water. We also have the <i>kaab el ghouzal</i> or "gazelle's horn", which is prepared with kind of puff pastry with almonds. There are many other cakes, like <i>el fekkas</i>, <i>l'ghroueyba</i>, <i>e'chebbakya</i>, <i>el bahlawa</i>, etc., whose main ingredients are almonds and nuts, orange blossom water, honey and sesame.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhF-z63syW9qft51VK7Q9oAMmAHnaVHgQNUs2ydktCX-kXoHtZDfcsyyo7nY3ttU7gUfbpSawzfjabHLyeuMFzIKL8WR6nTOyYYywJbaXFf4zUW_OlH2XmU1dAKA-vYJoWcBS0c5KGiEhQF/s1600/925829.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhF-z63syW9qft51VK7Q9oAMmAHnaVHgQNUs2ydktCX-kXoHtZDfcsyyo7nY3ttU7gUfbpSawzfjabHLyeuMFzIKL8WR6nTOyYYywJbaXFf4zUW_OlH2XmU1dAKA-vYJoWcBS0c5KGiEhQF/s1600/925829.jpg" /></a><span style="background-color: white; color: blue;">Couscouss with Chicken</span></div><div sizcache="2" sizset="62"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" sizcache="2" sizset="62"><tbody sizcache="2" sizset="62">
<tr sizcache="2" sizset="62"><td sizcache="2" sizset="62" valign="top"><div class="sig" id="sig" sizcache="2" sizset="62"><div sizcache="2" sizset="62">So, Moroccan gastronomy's richness and variety invite you to come and discover all its flavours and aromas. Moroccan meals, drinks, breads and cakes will certainly give you a different taste of the country. Come to Morocco and stay in one of the fantastic <a href="http://uk.espace-maroc.com/" jquery1299348064796="13" target="_new">Marrakech hotels</a>, which host wonderful restaurants, or in one of the typical <a href="http://uk.espace-maroc.com/lst-riad-marrakech-1.html" jquery1299348064796="14" target="_new">riads of Marrakech</a> located at the heart of the medina, a step away from some of Morocco's gastronomic Meccas. Come taste Morocco!</div></div><div sizcache="2" sizset="64" style="margin-bottom: 1em;">Article Source: <a href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Siham_Ben_Chikh">http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Siham_Ben_Chikh</a></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKcasE3USBiOhYAlRdszAD2a06bsDD_9ifYYeFXsilXleiocCQSeI-xqCk_Ac3TUG7CsH52ntlXktiA3rrruCSDH8S-iohqMMbZ8xbH9R9hTsXi7tA-B0_eXrSbmMWx1TiaCnzQcCvz1gM/s1600/080277.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="background-color: lime;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKcasE3USBiOhYAlRdszAD2a06bsDD_9ifYYeFXsilXleiocCQSeI-xqCk_Ac3TUG7CsH52ntlXktiA3rrruCSDH8S-iohqMMbZ8xbH9R9hTsXi7tA-B0_eXrSbmMWx1TiaCnzQcCvz1gM/s1600/080277.jpg" /></span></a><span style="background-color: white; color: blue;"><strong>Sweetened somolina</strong></span></div><div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong><span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></span></strong></div></div></div></div>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-5814153234944038962011-03-04T23:47:00.001-05:002015-12-24T14:52:17.569-05:00THE KAHINA, QUEEN OF THE BERBERS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="kahina"><span style="color: #4d469c;">The Kahina in History</span></a></span></h2>
<h2 style="font-weight: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 100%;">The Berbers were the ancient indigenous people of North Africa west of Egypt. They were of many tribes, but they managed to maintain their culture, their Hamitic languages, and considerable military power during successive invasions of their land. North Africa was conquered by the Phoenicians (who became the Carthaginians), then the Romans, the Vandals (one of the Germanic tribes that destroyed the Roman Empire), the Byzantines, and finally the Arabs. Other foreigners, notably Greeks and Jews, also lived in ancient North Africa. </span></h2>
<h2 style="font-weight: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[03]</sup> In the 7th century, the Berbers lived in uneasy peace with the Byzantines, who ruled the coastal cities of North Africa, after defeating the Vandals a century before. The ancient city of Carthage was the Byzantine capital in Africa. Some Berbers were Christians (with a notable tendency towards heresy), some were Jewish, and some adhered to their ancient polytheist religion. Before the end of the century the Byzantines were driven from Africa and the Berbers faced a new religion and a new invader. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[04]</sup> At the time of the death of the Prophet Mohammed in 632, Muslims ruled only in Arabia. Only ten years later Arab Muslims had achieved one of the most spectacular conquests in history. They conquered Syria (635-636), Palestine (638-640), and Egypt (639-642) from the Byzantines and first Iraq (635-637) and then Persia itself (637-642) from the Persians. Wherever they went, most of the people soon became Muslims and (except in Persia) Arabic-speakers. The Arab Conquest changed the Middle East permanently. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[05]</sup> In the 680s the Arabs swept across North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic. The Byzantines clung to their coastal cities. The Muslim leader Oqba ibn Nafi reached the Atlantic in Morocco and, according to legend, rode into the sea and slashed at the water with his sword in frustration that there were no more lands to conquer. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[06]</sup> On his return march in 683, Oqba was defeated and slain by the Berbers. The Arab Conquest paused for a decade but in 698 the Muslims finally took Carthage, evicting the Byzantine Christians completely from Africa. Now the conquerors faced their last and most stubborn enemy. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[07]</sup> The Kahina's name is given variously as Dahiyah, Dahia, or Dhabba (<i>Women in World History</i>, v.8, p. 414.) The title Kahina meant Prophetess. The <i>Encyclopedia Judaica</i> (v. 10, p. 686) says that the term is derived from the Arabic "Kahin" ("soothsayer") and dismisses as error the idea that "Kahina" was derived from the Jewish term "Cohen". </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[08]</sup> The <i>Encyclopedia Judaica</i> notes that Arabic authors, notably the major 14th century historian Ibn-Khaldun, say that the Kahina and her tribe, the Jerawa of the Aures Mountains in eastern Algeria and Tunisia, were Jewish. Charles-André Julien, in his <i>History of North Africa</i>, notes that another writer gave the Kahina "the picturesque appellation of the 'Berber Deborah'" (after Deborah, the judge of ancient Israel). Julien believes that the Kahina's resistance to the Arabs was "nurtured, as it seems, by Berber patriotism and Jewish faith." On the other hand, the <i>Encyclopedia Judaica</i> concludes "her opposition to the Muslim Arabs was not religiously inspired; some authorities deny she was Jewish. The history of Kahina remains controversial." </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[09]</sup> What is known is that soon after the Arab general Hassan ibn al Numan took Carthage from the Byzantines, the Kahina's forces defeated him. Then, as during World War II, a single defeat in North Africa might lead to a retreat of hundreds of miles. Hassan retreated, probably all the way back to Egypt. The Kahina took Carthage and ruled most of Berber North Africa. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[10]</sup> According to Ibn-Khaldun, as she waited for the inevitable renewed Arab assault, the Kahina carried out a brutal and disastrous policy. She declared that the Arabs wished to conquer North Africa only because of its wealth. She ordered Berbers who were still nomadic to destroy the cities, orchards, and herds of sedentary Berbers, to make North Africa a desert. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[11]</sup> If the Kahina actually made this amazing decision, she was tragically mistaken. The Arabs were determined to take North Africa regardless of its wealth or poverty, because there were people to be converted to Islam, and because North Africa was a gateway to Spain and Europe. Unsurprisingly, according to Ibn-Khaldun, this savage policy of city burning cost the Kahina the support of city-dwelling Berbers. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[12]</sup> In 702, Hassan again invaded the Berber lands and quickly defeated the Kahina. Julien writes, "on the eve of the final battle, the Kahina ordered her sons to go over to the enemy." Her sons had to convert to Islam to seal their defection to the Arabs. Julien believes that for the Kahina, the survival of her family and its supremacy over her tribe were ultimately more important than any questions of nationalism or religion. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[13]</sup> Accounts differ as to whether the Kahina died in battle or was captured and executed.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: 100%;"><img alt="Those outfits; those eyebrows! Kahina...Kahlo...could there be a connection?" border="1" src="http://www.whoosh.org/issue85/graphics/dehiakahina.jpg" /></span></center>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: 100%;">Kahina in art</span></center>
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</span><h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="khaldun"><span style="color: #4d469c;">The Kahina According to Ibn-Khaldun</span></a></span></h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[14]</sup> Wali al-Din Abd-Ar-Rahman Ibn-Khaldun (1332-1406) was the greatest Arab historian of the Middle Ages. His reputation is very high among modern historians. Arnold Toynbee described Ibn-Khaldun's theories as "a philosophy of history which is undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has ever yet been created by any mind in any time and place" (quoted in the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> article on Ibn-Khaldun). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[15]</sup> Greatly simplified, Ibn-Khaldun believed that conflict between nomadic and settled peoples, and between rural and urban peoples, was the most important factor in history. This theory seemed to account for many events in the ancient history of the Middle East, as well as the fall of the Roman Empire to the German barbarians and the Arab conquest of the Byzantines and Persians. It is still a good theoretical model for some modern conflicts. Many of the wars of modern Latin America and Africa have been primarily conflicts between hayseeds and city people. So were the wars of the Taliban in Afghanistan. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[16]</sup> Obviously the tale of the Kahina's destruction of the North African cities and her subsequent loss of the support of city-dwellers fits well into Ibn-Khaldun's worldview. Since the earlier sources on which Ibn-Khaldun relied have been lost, we must wonder whether Ibn-Khaldun exaggerated the story of the Kahina's city-burning to illustrate his theory. On the other hand, the story may be true and may have helped to suggest his groundbreaking theory to Ibn-Khaldun. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[17]</sup> The major work of Ibn-Khaldun was his <i>Kitab al-Ibar wa-Diwan al-Mubtada Wa-l-Khabar</i>. This multi-volume book has apparently not been translated in its entirety but William MacGuckin, Baron de Slane, translated the section on North Africa into French in 1847-1851, as <i>Histoire des Berberes et des Dynasties Musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale</i>. This French version is apparently not widely available in the U.S. I was unable to get a copy through interlibrary loan. [If anyone has access to a copy of Slane's translation and can find the material on the Kahina in it, I will be happy to pay for copying, mailing or fax costs to receive the relevant pages.] </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[18]</sup> Ibn-Khaldun's masterpiece, <i>The Muqaddimah</i>, is the book-length introduction to the <i>Kitab</i>, which sets forth his influential theoretical work. There are several references to the nature of Berber resistance in the translation by Franz Rosenthal. Ibn-Khaldun notes that the Berbers were given to rebellion and heresy under the Muslims, just as they had been under the Christians. </span><br />
<blockquote>
<span style="font-size: 100%;">They continued to rebel and apostatized time after time. The Muslims massacred many of them. After the Muslim religion had been established among them, they went on revolting and seceding, and they adopted dissident [Kharajite] opinions many times. Ibn Abi Zayd said that the Berbers in the Maghrib [North Africa] revolted twelve times and that Islam become firmly established among them only during the governorship of Musa ben Nusayr and thereafter. That is what is meant by the statement reported on the authority of 'Umar, that "Ifriqiyah [Africa] divides the hearts of its inhabitants." The statement refers to the great number of tribes and groups there, which causes them to be disobedient and unmanageable. </span><span style="font-size: 100%;">The Berber tribes in the West are innumerable. All of them are Bedouins [i.e., nomads] and members of groups and families. Whenever one tribe is destroyed, another takes its place and is as refractory and rebellious as the former one had been. Therefore, it has taken the Arabs a long time to establish their dynasty in the land of Ifriqiyah. (Rosenthal translation, p. 333) </span></blockquote>
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</span><h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="gibbon"><span style="color: #4d469c;">The Kahina According to Edward Gibbon</span></a></span></h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[19]</sup> In his <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Edward Gibbon wrote an account of the Kahina, undoubtedly based on Ibn-Khaldun. Gibbon's Kahina story is in the fifty-first chapter of the <i>Decline and Fall</i>, in a single long paragraph. Gibbon's prose is intoxicating and since it is long out of copyright, I copy the whole section here, breaking Gibbon's long paragraph into several paragraphs. The story begins after the Arab defeat of the Byzantines and conquest of Carthage. </span><br />
<blockquote>
<span style="font-size: 100%;">The Greeks [i.e., the Byzantines] were expelled, but the Arabians were not yet the masters of the country. In the interior provinces the Moors or Berbers, so feeble under the first Caesars [the Romans], so formidable to the Byzantine princes, maintained a disorderly resistance to the religion and power of the successors of Mohammad. Under the standard of their queen Cahina the independent tribes acquired some degree of union and discipline; and as the Moors respected in their females the character of a prophetess, they attacked the invaders with an enthusiasm similar to their own.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">The veteran bands of Hassan were inadequate to the defense of Africa; the conquests of an age were lost in a single day; and the Arabian chief, overwhelmed by the torrent, retired to the confines of Egypt, and expected, five years, the promised succours of the caliph. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">After the retreat of the Saracens, the victorious prophetess assembled the Moorish chiefs, and recommended a measure of strange and savage policy. "Our cities," she said, "and the gold and silver which they contain, perpetually attract the arms of the Arabs. These vile metals are not the objects of our ambition; we content ourselves with the simple productions of the earth. Let us destroy these cities; let us bury in their ruins those pernicious treasures; and when the avarice of our foes shall be destitute of temptation, perhaps they will cease to disturb the tranquility of a warlike people."</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 100%;"><img alt="I'm not really a kahina--I only play one on TV" border="1" src="http://www.whoosh.org/issue85/graphics/kahina-xwp01.jpg" /></span></center>
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<span style="font-size: 100%;">Kahina in <i>Xena: Warrior Princess</i></span></center>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><br />
</span><span style="font-size: 100%;">The proposal was accepted with unanimous applause. From Tangier to Tripoli the buildings, or at least the fortifications, were demolished, the fruit trees were cut down, the means of subsistence were extirpated, a fertile and populous garden was changed into a desert, and the historians of a more recent age could discern the frequent traces of the prosperity and devastation of their ancestors.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">Such is the tale of the modern Arabians. Yet I strongly suspect that their ignorance of antiquity, the love of the marvelous, and the fashion of extolling the philosophy of barbarians, has induced them to describe, as one voluntary act, the calamities of three hundred years since the first fury of the Donatists [North African Christian heretics who defied the Roman Catholic Church] and Vandals.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">In the progress of the revolt Cahina had most probably contributed her share of destruction; and the alarm of universal ruin might terrify and alienate the cities that had reluctantly yielded to her unworthy yoke. They no longer hoped, perhaps they no longer wished, the return of their Byzantine sovereigns: their present servitude was not alleviated by the benefits of order and justice; and the most zealous Catholics must prefer the imperfect truths of the Koran to the blind and rude idolatry of the Moors. The general of the Saracens was again received as the saviour of the province; the friends of civil society conspired against the savages of the land and the royal prophetess was slain in the first battle, which overturned the baseless fabric of her superstition and empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">The same spirit revived under the successor of Hassan; it was finally quelled by the activity of Musa and his two sons; but the number of the rebels may be presumed from that of three hundred thousand captives; sixty thousand of whom, the caliph's fifth, were sold for the profit of the public treasury. Thirty thousand of the barbarian youth were enlisted in the troops; and the pious labours of Musa, to inculcate the knowledge and practice of the Koran, accustomed the Africans to obey the apostle of God and the commander of the faithful.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">In their climate and government, their diet and habitation, the wandering Moors resembled the Bedoweens of the desert. With the religion they were proud to accept the language, name, and origin of Arabs: the blood of the strangers and natives was insensibly mingled; and from the Euphrates to the Atlantic the same nation might seem to be diffused over the sandy plains of Asia and Africa. Yet I will not deny that fifty thousand tents of pure Arabians might be transported over the Nile, and scattered through the Libyan desert; and I am not ignorant that five of the Moorish tribes still retain their barbarous idiom, with the appellation and character of White Africans. (Gibbon, v. 2, p. 279-280) </span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><br /><a href="http://www.clixsense.com/?8445329" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="http://csstatic.com/banners/clixsense_gpt728x90a.png" /></a>
</span><h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="irving"><span style="color: #4d469c;">The Kahina According to Washington Irving</span></a></span></h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[20]</sup> Washington Irving is best known to modern readers as the author of the simple American rustic tales <i>Rip van Winkle</i> and <i>The Headless Horseman</i>, but he lived for many years in Europe and wrote many sophisticated historical works. He was especially fascinated by the Spanish and their traditional enemies the Moslems. His story of the Kahina is in the 54th chapter of his book <i>Mahomet and His Successors</i> (1850). His prose is almost as seductive as Gibbon's and is also out of copyright. </span><br />
<blockquote>
<span style="font-size: 100%;">The imperial [Byzantine] forces were now expelled from the coasts of Northern Africa, but the Moslems had not yet achieved the conquest of the country. A formidable enemy remained in the person of a native and heroic queen, who was revered by her subjects as a saint or prophetess. Her real name was Dhabba, but she is generally known in history by the surname, given to her by the Moslems, of Cahina or the Sorceress. She has occasionally been confounded with her son Aben, or rather Ibn Cahina, of whom mention has been made in a previous chapter. </span><span style="font-size: 100%;">Under the sacred standard of this prophet queen were combined the Moors of Mauritania and the Berbers of the mountains, and of the plains bordering the interior deserts. Roving and independent tribes, which had formerly warred with each other, now yielded implicit obedience to one common leader, whom they regarded with religious reverence. The character of marabout or saint has ever had vast influence over the tribes of Africa. Under this heroic woman the combined host had been reduced to some degree of discipline, and inspired with patriotic ardor, were now prepared to make a more effective struggle for their native land than they had yet done under their generals.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 100%;"><img alt="After shooting on Xena finished, Mel Gibson came in to film his Aramaic epic. You can spot him at far right." border="1" src="http://www.whoosh.org/issue85/graphics/kahina-xwp02.jpg" /></span></center>
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</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 100%;">More Kahina in <i>Xena: Warrior Princess</i></span></center>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><br />
</span><span style="font-size: 100%;">After repeated battles, the emir Hossan was compelled to retire with his veteran but diminished army to the frontiers of Egypt. The patriot queen was not satisfied with this partial success. Calling a council of war of the leaders and principal warriors of the different hordes: "This retreat of the enemy," said she, "is but temporary; they will return in greater force. What is it that attracts to our land these Arab spoilers? The wealth of our cities; the treasures of silver and gold digged from the bowels of the earth; the fruits of our gardens and orchards; the produce of our fields. Let us demolish our cities; return these accursed treasures to the earth; fell our fruit-trees; lay waste our fields, and spread a barrier of desolation between us and the country of these robbers!"</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">The words of the royal prophetess were received with fanatic enthusiasm by her barbarian troops; the greater part of whom, collected from the mountains and from distant parts, had little share in the property to be sacrificed. Walled towns were forthwith dismantled; majestic edifices tumbled into ruins; groves of fruit-trees were hewn down, and the whole country from Tangiers to Tripoli was converted from a populous and fertile region into a howling and barren waste. A short time was sufficient to effect a desolation, which centuries have not sufficed to remedy.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">This sacrificial measure of Queen Cahina, however patriotic its intention, was fatal in the end to herself. The inhabitants of the cities and the plains, who had beheld their property laid waste by the infuriated zeal of their defenders, hailed the return of the Moslem invaders as though they had been the saviours of the land.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">The Moslems, as Cahina predicted, returned with augmented forces: but when she took the field to oppose them, the ranks of her army were thinned; the enthusiasm which had formerly animated them was at an end: they were routed, after a sanguinary battle, and the heroine fell into the hands of the enemy. Those who captured her spared her life, because she was a woman and a queen. When brought into the presence of Hossan she maintained her haughty and fierce demeanor. He proposed the usual conditions, of conversion or tribute. She refused both with scorn, and fell a victim of her patriotism and religious constancy, being beheaded in the presence of the emir.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;">[Irving goes on to recount how Hassan (or "Hossan") was ruined by the jealousy of the Caliph's brother, who was emir of Egypt.] It is added that, not content with depriving Hossan of his command, he despoiled him of all his property, and carried his persecutions so far, that the conqueror of Carthage, the slayer of the patriot queen, within a brief time after her death, and almost amid the very scenes of his triumph, died of a broken heart. His cruel treatment of the heroic Cahina reconciles us to the injustice wreaked upon him. (Irving, p. 489-492).</span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[21]</sup> Note that Gibbon and Irving differ on some points, even though they no doubt rely on the same basic sources. Gibbon says Hassan's conquests were "lost in a single day"; Irving says they were lost "after repeated battles". Gibbon questions the story of the Kahina's destroying North Africa's cities; Irving accepts it. Gibbon says, "the royal prophetess was slain in the first battle" while Irving claims she was captured and executed. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[22]</sup> The two authorities also disagree in their appraisal of the Kahina. Gibbon refers to "her unworthy rule" and "the baseless fabric of her superstition and empire" while Irving admires "this heroic woman" and "her patriotism and religious constancy."</span><br />
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</span><h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="wellman"><span style="color: #4d469c;">The Kahina According to Manly Wade Wellman</span></a></span></h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[23]</sup> Manly Wade Wellman (1903-1986) was a major fantasy fiction writer, best known for his short stories set in the American rural South. In 1986, the year of his death, he completed the novel <i>Cahena: a Dream of the Past</i>. The hero is a fictitious character, Wulf, a Saxon soldier in Byzantine service who escapes from Carthage when it falls to the Arabs and takes refuge with the Berbers. He becomes the military adviser and lover of the Kahina (whom Wellman calls the "Daia the Cahena"). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[24]</sup> Wellman's work is a good, old-fashioned historical adventure novel with touches of the supernatural. Readers interested in the late ancient and early medieval period should enjoy it. His depiction of Wulf and the Berber warriors as tough, grim, smart, highly competent fighters is very convincing. His Kahina is more sketchily drawn but is still a powerful, confident, sensuous woman. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[25]</sup> Wellman does not present the Kahina as Jewish. He shows her practicing magic with an eclectic collection of magical objects, including figures of Berber animal gods, the Christian cross, and a Jewish candlestick (p. 78). He has her rule tolerantly over pagans, Christians, Jews, and even some Muslims. Wellman's Berber Jews have no rabbis and know very little about Judaism, including very few prayers. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[26]</sup> Wellman's Kahina has genuine supernatural powers of precognition and healing, powers derived from the Berber gods. Unfortunately, Wulf kills a mysterious, apparently dangerous female spirit, the Lamia. Her death leads to the disappearance of most of the Berber gods and of the Kahina's powers, followed by the victory of the Arabs and of monotheism. The supernatural elements in Wellman's novel sometimes mix uneasily with the realistic political and military story. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[27]</sup> Wellman includes the story of the Kahina ordering the destruction of North Africa's cities. He shows rough nomads gleefully destroying the homes of people they consider soft and luxury loving. Wellman blames this decision on a false defector, Khalid, an aristocratic Arab who was captured, declared allegiance to the Kahina, supplanted Wulf as her lover and adviser, persuaded her to burn the cities, then fled back to the Muslims. </span><br />
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</span><h2>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/" name="after"><span style="color: #4d469c;">After the Kahina</span></a></span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: 100%;"><span style="color: #4d469c;"><img alt="Amazing, what Play-Doh and a little bronzing gel can do..." border="1" src="http://www.whoosh.org/issue85/graphics/xena-kahina.jpg" /></span></span></center>
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<span style="font-size: 100%;">Xena and her new best friend, Kahina </span></center>
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><br />
</span><span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[28]</sup> After the defeat of the Kahina and the Berbers, the ancient polytheistic religions of North Africa disappeared. Most Berbers became Muslims (with a persistent taste for heresy). Many Berbers became Arabic-speakers; some retained their own languages. Berbers were prominent among the Muslim conquerors of Spain. Christianity almost disappeared in North Africa west of Egypt. The Jews were more stubborn and persisted in a few areas, especially in the Atlas Mountains. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[29]</sup> The Jewish presence in North Africa was revived by a tragedy in the late 15th and early 16th Centuries. After the completion of the Christian Reconquest of Spain in 1492, the Inquisition gave the Muslims and Jews of Spain the alternatives of conversion to Catholicism or expulsion. Large numbers of Spanish Jews, as well as most Spanish Muslims, immigrated to Africa. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[30]</sup> Another dramatic foreign event ended the long Jewish presence in North Africa. The establishment of Israel in 1948 caused a rise in active anti-Semitism in North Africa. This, combined with the retreat of European colonialism and the independence of Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, and finally Algeria in the 1950s and 1960s, led to a mass emigration of Jews. For the first time in about 2000 years, North Africa had almost no Jews. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[31]</sup> Today even ruins associated with Jews can be a magnet for violence in North Africa. On April 11, 2002 a truck bomb loaded with fuel exploded outside an ancient, abandoned synagogue on the tourist island of Djerba off the coast of Tunisia. Besides the suicide bomber, twenty people were killed, most of them German tourists. German investigators said the attack was the work of al-Qaida. This was apparently the only successful al-Qaida operation outside Afghanistan and Pakistan in the first year after the attacks in the U.S. in September 2001. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[32]</sup> The Berbers are still a major presence in North Africa and are still often at odds with their rulers. An Associated Press article published June 1, 2002 ("Algerian prime minister's party wins election majority") reported that Berbers are about one-third of Algeria's population and that about sixty people had been killed in riots between Berbers and police in the Kabyle region in 2001 and early 2002. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 100%;"><sup>[33]</sup> Most North African Jews went to Israel, where they are a significant part of the population and the armed forces. Memories are long in the Middle East. Perhaps some Israelis from North Africa consider Israel's victories a long-delayed revenge for the Arab conquest of the Berbers and the death of the Kahina.</span><br />
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<a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></span></span></h2>
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-34903901647713431682011-03-04T23:44:00.000-05:002011-03-04T23:44:47.742-05:00The berber jewish culture in Morocco<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 100%;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 100%;"><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: 100%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Since Jewish traders settled in the Land of the Berbers more than 2,000 years ago, Moroccan Jewry has had a unique culture, mingling Jewish and North African influences. It also constitutes one of the most successful models of political and religious coexistence in the Islamic world. But with the upheavals of the twentieth century, the question is whether Moroccan Jewry will retain its character and identity into the twenty-first century.</span></span></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRp120xecGRWCpZyrvbgEz2Hw8Pu4q-JFaK7YK45mRApODXqKnBVkKxgkhZdADvYYHts70QHZRtDoP0KiCstN8r8aeAgANzQfQDPXdgYqUJmAC3mKAcWHlyM0AtwQDKvfH0nLL1NZdJ6EG/s1600/MOROCCAN+JEWS.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRp120xecGRWCpZyrvbgEz2Hw8Pu4q-JFaK7YK45mRApODXqKnBVkKxgkhZdADvYYHts70QHZRtDoP0KiCstN8r8aeAgANzQfQDPXdgYqUJmAC3mKAcWHlyM0AtwQDKvfH0nLL1NZdJ6EG/s1600/MOROCCAN+JEWS.jpg" /></a></div><h3 class="post-title entry-title"><a href="http://bahmaduzeggane.blogspot.com/2008/06/routes-of-exile-moroccan-jewish-odyssey.html">Routes of Exile: A Moroccan Jewish Odyssey</a> </h3><div align="left"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><i style="font-family: georgia;">Routes of Exile</i><span style="font-family: georgia;"> traces the history of this branch of Jewry – from the first "Berber Jews" to the vast migration and new tensions set off by the creation of the State of Israel. The film takes a particularly probing look at the most recent stage of the journey – social and political changes in Israel, the struggle for identity in France and Canada, and the increasing isolation of the remnant that remains behind in Morocco.</span></span></span></span></div><h3 class="post-title entry-title"><a href="http://bahmaduzeggane.blogspot.com/2008/06/moroccan-jewish-culture-on-display.html">Moroccan-Jewish culture on display</a> </h3><div style="font-family: arial;"><br />
<span style="font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold;">Exchanging cultures</span> </div><br />
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<div style="font-family: arial;">"Especially with today’s tensions between Muslims and non-Muslims this exhibition is of utmost importance," Janrense <span class="text14" style="font-size: 100%;"><span>Boonstra, director</span></span><span class="text14" style="font-size: 100%;"><span> of the Biblical Museum said. "I expect a lot of </span></span><span class="text14" style="font-size: 100%;"><span>Moroccan visitors to come and I think the exhibition will be a surprise for them." </span></span></div><br />
The vast majority of Dutch Moroccans are Muslims and have a Berber-background. What the Dutch Muslims usually don’t know is that Jews and Berbers were living peacefully together in Morocco. There was even an important mutual cultural exchange for centuries before the arrival of Arabic culture and with the Arab conquest during the 8th century. <br />
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<div style="font-family: arial;">"For many centuries the Jewish community formed the most important minority in Morocco," Boonstra said. "Based on their culture, this community can be divided into two separate groups. The first one is the native group, the toshavim in Hebrew, who have been living in rural areas for ages." </div><br />
The second group is the dispelled group, the Megorashim, who mainly lived in the cities. The Megorashim, expelled from Spain and Portugal in the fifteenth century where rich and literate. <br />
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"The difference between these two can be clearly seen in the exhibition," he said. <br />
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<div style="font-family: arial;">The exhibition was set up among others with the help of the Dutch-Moroccan Jew Sami Kaspi. Rabat-born Kaspi created the Foundation Maimon seven years ago to promote Moroccan-Jewish culture and to foster the good ties between different religions. </div><br />
It was Kaspi that brought the Biblical Museum into contact with Paul Dahan from Brussels. Most of the objects used in this exhibition are from the private collection of Dahan, who owns one of the largest collections of its kind in Europe. <br />
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<span style="font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold;">'Eternal bond'</span><br />
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"Most Moroccan Jews, like Kaspi, have a very strong, eternal bond with their tradition and heritage which is completely intertwined with the history of Morocco and the Moroccan-monarchy. That’s what we want to show," Boonstra said. “Compare them with the Russian Jews for instance. They wouldn’t think about returning to the former Sovjet Union. Moroccan Jews though return often from Israel or France to visit the graves of famous rabbis for instance.” <br />
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There are many of them in Morocco. More than 120 graves of righteous Jews are also worshipped by Muslims. <br />
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“That makes this shared history so special,” he said. <br />
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<div style="color: black; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Although Morocco's monarchs, including the current king, have traditionally sworn to protect the country's Jews, the community has fallen from 350,000 to 3,500 in half a century. Most young Jews have emigrated either to Europe or to Israel, where some 700,000 people claim Moroccan origin. </span></div><div style="color: black; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Morocco held local elections last Friday, in which the country's main legal Islamic party, the Justice and Development party, made modest gains, despite a campaign against it by Moroccan authorities and the pro-government press, which have accused it of "moral responsibility" for the May 16 attacks. </span></div><div style="color: black; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">Jews claim to have been present in the Maghreb since the synagogue at Djerba, Tunisia, was founded around 586BC. Their numbers were multiplied many times over when Spanish Jews were expelled from their country in 1492. </span></div><div style="color: black; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: 100%;">The Jewish community in Tunisia, reduced from 100,000 to 2,000 in 50 years, has also been attacked. The Djerba synagogue was attacked by a suicide bomber who killed 21 people in April 2002.</span></div><div style="color: black; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 100%;"><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: 100%;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></span></span></span></div>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-52289537948898619432011-03-04T23:37:00.000-05:002011-03-04T23:37:51.044-05:00Culture judeo berbere au Maroc<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGA1pOK8YSTYOTCl7vXlbtKzS4YJWDWfLnl9VVQbXru090Vncqv025jEn1BXrrm1pE1AHzNaxmFqFvCLIFqkyDGSiiWsypjGg71OtRhc0RVvtqIUSh8CrNuJwR6jZwFi1tLea3fgQlmLQM/s1600/moroccan.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="110" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGA1pOK8YSTYOTCl7vXlbtKzS4YJWDWfLnl9VVQbXru090Vncqv025jEn1BXrrm1pE1AHzNaxmFqFvCLIFqkyDGSiiWsypjGg71OtRhc0RVvtqIUSh8CrNuJwR6jZwFi1tLea3fgQlmLQM/s320/moroccan.gif" width="210" /></a></div><br />
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<div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>INTERFÉRENCES CULTURELLES JUDÉO-BERBÈRES </strong></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiis-Jy8SMs-JlIRAhewWzoHSBIENelvhTz_pJK6Atv6Yz6A0fovOl-m_H7Rv8IJrh8KZB6Nw-AbYvjuhMc0EqQa0SiH-_T0L_0bn0jG8DnUo2LD_wKqu4SIW_jPxg5ccYnFRi8Sg75yZnb/s1600/maroc+sasn+complexes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiis-Jy8SMs-JlIRAhewWzoHSBIENelvhTz_pJK6Atv6Yz6A0fovOl-m_H7Rv8IJrh8KZB6Nw-AbYvjuhMc0EqQa0SiH-_T0L_0bn0jG8DnUo2LD_wKqu4SIW_jPxg5ccYnFRi8Sg75yZnb/s1600/maroc+sasn+complexes.jpg" /></a><br />
<span style="color: orange;">Par chlomo El baz</span><br />
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Version abrégée d'une communication faite à Trieste en septembre 1997, au cours d'un colloque sur le thème : « Ports et abords de la Méditerranée » <br />
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Les interférences judéo-maghrébines, métissage de cultures, de visions, de modes de vie et de pensée, englobent deux catégories de symbioses : l'une judéo-arabe, l'autre plus spécifiquement judéo-berbère. La première, la plus connue, a fait l'objet de très nombreuses études, c'est la fameuse civilisation d'Al-Andalus attestée par une prestigieuse production littéraire et philosophique qui illustre le degré de coexistence pacifique et de fécondation culturelle atteint par deux civilisations sémitiques, arabo-musulmane et juive. Bien moins connue est l'autre catégorie traitant des relations entre les juifs venus de Palestine et les habitants autochtones de l'Afrique du Nord. C'est cette lacune qu'il convient de combler, ce que tentent de faire des chercheurs berbères avides de connaître et de raviver la mémoire collective de leur peuple.<br />
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</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_M8GgdZ36lXsws6RnDLJytUp3M34myHRwbjb-TFOmVPxlaynVeryezmmmHjut_sSwTusv6YGV2VlDUXg7dfMMzv1tLJ0T7JqM-jxKPpaNnrynlNfdOOLEiFI_CYIuWbofLYf-hFAtnnk/s1600/juifs+au+sud+du+maroc.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_M8GgdZ36lXsws6RnDLJytUp3M34myHRwbjb-TFOmVPxlaynVeryezmmmHjut_sSwTusv6YGV2VlDUXg7dfMMzv1tLJ0T7JqM-jxKPpaNnrynlNfdOOLEiFI_CYIuWbofLYf-hFAtnnk/s320/juifs+au+sud+du+maroc.jpg" width="280" /></a></div>L'arrivée des juifs en Afrique du Nord, sans doute en compagnie ou dans le sillage des navigateurs-commerçants phéniciens, remonte très loin dans le temps, sans qu'il soit possible de situer exactement la date à laquelle cette migration a commencé. Certains la font remonter à l'époque de Salomon (1er millénaire av. J.-C.), d'autres à la période qui a suivi la destruction du Premier Temple (587 av. J.-C.), d'autres encore à une date plus récente, après la destruction du Second Temple (70 de l'ère chrétienne).<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEje-QvzNarjQdcggVFteBDVoeefTSCabTipS2fWfgNAi9-8CWBxrv4B4CUvF2CmBxMjoboTKQJB-QHazMkaiu8Ys3MRNKKYIw3wK0U9Pcuu0NkiHu5nCHWgH6oc4zACQvUo_cWLhL_UWt4/s1600/MOROCCAN+JEWS.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="205" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEje-QvzNarjQdcggVFteBDVoeefTSCabTipS2fWfgNAi9-8CWBxrv4B4CUvF2CmBxMjoboTKQJB-QHazMkaiu8Ys3MRNKKYIw3wK0U9Pcuu0NkiHu5nCHWgH6oc4zACQvUo_cWLhL_UWt4/s320/MOROCCAN+JEWS.jpg" width="246" /></a></div>Une première remarque s'impose : de tous les peuples qui, très tôt, ont commencé à se déplacer en Méditerranée d'Est en Ouest, seuls les Juifs n'avaient aucune visée conquérante ou colonisatrice et tout à fait paradoxalement, de tous les peuples qui se sont succédés, seuls ont survécu jusqu'à nos jours, s'infiltrant dès le début et s'intégrant dans la trame de la société et de la culture locales. Très tôt, ils essaimèrent depuis les comptoirs phéniciens côtiers vers l'intérieur des terres, s'insérant de manière organique dans chaque tribu, chaque village, s'imprégnant de l'environnement et l'influençant en retour.<br />
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Ironie du sort : ceux qui ont su et pu survivre à tous les bouleversements qui ont secoué la région, se sont trouvés, au milieu de ce siècle, impliqués, imbriqués dans un autre phénomène historico-politique non moins étonnant que leur survie. C'est celui du retour en masse des juifs du Maghreb et d'Orient, sous l'impulsion de la vague messianico-sioniste des années 50 et 60, vers la même terre qui a vu certains de leurs lointains ancêtres, plusieurs siècles auparavant, partir à l'aventure en compagnie des intrépides marins de Tyr et Sidon. Ici semble se clore un chapitre passionnant de l'histoire des migrations en Méditerranée. Fin d'une coexistence qu'évoquent avec nostalgie ceux qui sont restés sur place, beaucoup moins ceux qui sont partis vers leur nouveau-antique destin.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYOvCi-7RHQTqiHUYpS9DzjDXZOuCR-o-Z5ckJB2Y3j5CWS1atT8Tf02BT25Ljc16hIkAnkG36lPl_vY2X63JlZJ8Qm33coCSHwR8fp2xZbAczzQP3uyXqZAKj5Cez-0VYYEeFa407tlw/s1600/untitled.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="174" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYOvCi-7RHQTqiHUYpS9DzjDXZOuCR-o-Z5ckJB2Y3j5CWS1atT8Tf02BT25Ljc16hIkAnkG36lPl_vY2X63JlZJ8Qm33coCSHwR8fp2xZbAczzQP3uyXqZAKj5Cez-0VYYEeFa407tlw/s320/untitled.bmp" width="112" /></a></div>Le « printemps berbère », comme a été baptisé l'éveil ethno-culturel amazigh, constitue une motivation supplémentaire pour tenter d'élucider ce phénomène d'osmose entre le Maghreb pré-islamique et les premiers représentants du monothéisme que les Berbères ont rencontrés, ce qui les a probablement préparés à adopter plus facilement l'autre version du monothéisme, celle de l'islam. Cette rencontre judéo-berbère que certains auraient tendance à décrire comme un coup de foudre, présente des aspects énigmatiques que l'absence de preuves historiques irréfutables rend encore plus obscurs. L'intérêt très marqué de la part de certains militants pour le judaïsme, qu'ils considèrent comme une composante de leur identité, est à la fois un adjuvant et un danger. Une recherche plus poussée s'impose pour en savoir plus sur les affinités, les apports mutuels et les relations réelles entre la communauté juive minoritaire qui a conservé sa pleine et entière autonomie religieuse et culturelle, et la communauté berbère majoritaire qui, malgré son islamisation totale, a cependant conservé dans son patrimoine quelques traces indélébiles de son contact avec le judaïsme bien avant l'arrivée de l'islam.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhG29kbNYstVx0hd5f95O_oSjRU3wfhUET6O1vdVjPXzhvYVdRz3T6mTQxiC1816-coPTtNACQ6tEZDLFVKxfYhGtRhKvKXpoMB6fAlfSsI04Umlx9sDs81XStNDUCdltxDfNDOMYFUhORN/s1600/707px-Menora_svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="271" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhG29kbNYstVx0hd5f95O_oSjRU3wfhUET6O1vdVjPXzhvYVdRz3T6mTQxiC1816-coPTtNACQ6tEZDLFVKxfYhGtRhKvKXpoMB6fAlfSsI04Umlx9sDs81XStNDUCdltxDfNDOMYFUhORN/s320/707px-Menora_svg.png" width="320" /></a><br />
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Mais qui sont les Berbères ? Ont-ils toujours vécu en Afrique du Nord et aux abords du Sahara ? L'incertitude des historiens et des archéologues, l'insuffisance de preuves épigraphiques, laissent la place libre à l'imagination qui, de toute façon et traditionnellement, s'est donné libre cours, renforcée en cela par certains écrits juifs et arabes du Moyen Age. Ces écrits font état de légendes sur l'origine « cananéenne » des Berbères, dont l'ancêtre ne serait autre que le célébre chef militaire Goliath (en berbère Jalout). Le légendaire s'imbrique ici dans l'histoire, l'interprète, la pervertit, l'idéalise, favorisant l'exploitation idéologique, culturaliste. Il faut dire qu'il y a là une sorte de revanche de la part d'une civilisation dénigrée cherchant à se réhabiliter, en minimisant ce qu'elle doit à l'environnement culturel dominant et en amplifiant la dette qu'elle pense avoir contractée vis-à-vis d'une autre, dénuée, celle-là, de toute prétention à l'hégémonie. Mais il y a davantage : outre le mythe de l'origine juive (ou cananéenne), a cours une autre thèse reconnue plus ou moins comme historique, bien qu'encore insuffisamment attestée, selon laquelle les Berbères auraient été en partie judaïsés. Les divergences à ce sujet entre historiens vont bon train, principalement quand il s'agit de la figure historico-légendaire de la Kahina.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBpmTxPSrI0meMpTnwCctNTwP-Oyn4hxmM_WfGst9_7t6mIAwuGpqPth-MYYkH1akLDny7qVffBx95exGPqNUggiASzquu0LdTiSOTvEWlHAnyC0Ce89gxr_sIncRvaCT_6nmq74CJAlI/s1600/BERBER+JEWS.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="229" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBpmTxPSrI0meMpTnwCctNTwP-Oyn4hxmM_WfGst9_7t6mIAwuGpqPth-MYYkH1akLDny7qVffBx95exGPqNUggiASzquu0LdTiSOTvEWlHAnyC0Ce89gxr_sIncRvaCT_6nmq74CJAlI/s320/BERBER+JEWS.jpg" width="220" /></a></div>La société berbère semble avoir été l'une des rares à n'avoir pas connu l'antisémitisme. Le droit berbère, azref, dit « coutumier », contrairement au droit musulman (et au droit juif, soit dit en passant), est tout à fait indépendant de la sphère religieuse. Il serait, par essence, « laïque » et égalitaire, et n'impose aucun statut particulier au juif, alors que la législation musulmane fixe le statut du juif (et du chrétien) en tant que dhimmi, « protégé », soumis à certaines obligations et interdictions. Le juif occupait une place bien définie dans le système socio-économique du village berbère : il remplissait généralement la fonction soit d'artisan (orfèvre, cordonnier, ferblantier), soit de commerçant, l'une et l'autre occupation pouvant être ambulantes. Aujourd'hui encore, après trente ou quarante ans, les villageois de l'Atlas et des vallées sahariennes se souviennent avec nostalgie du temps où les juifs faisaient partie du paysage, allant jusqu'à imputer à leur absence la raison de leurs misères actuelles.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-QIDMsw7YOiQMj40tPubNCUQMcSqGdomaprp5acyplKCcDN4EpWBck8AEAxAXg3CeuM2uqqDIbrcMD4x23nKam0kqt8YcEGiokz5X4VZYB_5q7xjWvkHFlnB9MI-wGUf38FNnGcD-cP4/s1600/imagesCAVUWB42.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="139" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-QIDMsw7YOiQMj40tPubNCUQMcSqGdomaprp5acyplKCcDN4EpWBck8AEAxAXg3CeuM2uqqDIbrcMD4x23nKam0kqt8YcEGiokz5X4VZYB_5q7xjWvkHFlnB9MI-wGUf38FNnGcD-cP4/s320/imagesCAVUWB42.jpg" width="186" /></a></div>Peut-on en dire autant de l'image du Berbère musulman auprès de son ex-compatriote juif ? Rien n'est moins sûr. Il y a eu là comme un refoulement chez les juifs berbères immigrés en Israël quant à leur passé, dû sans doute à plusieurs raisons : leur nouvelle identité israélienne acquise « aux dépens » de leur précédente identité, les préjugés et quolibets qui frappaient et frappent encore les « chleuhs » (même en Israël). Leurs enfants et petits-enfants, nés en Israël, sont dans l'ignorance totale du patrimoine berbère de leurs parents.<br />
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L'origine « cananéenne » supposée, ou la judaïsation probable de certaines tribus, trouve un écho dans le folklore berbère, témoin ce court poème oral :<br />
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Maman<br />
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Pourquoi ne travailles-tu pas la laine le samedi ?<br />
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C'est ainsi, mon petit<br />
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Depuis longtemps, très longtemps...<br />
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Pourtant le fqih* dit que c'est le vendredi...<br />
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Ta ta ta !<br />
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Qu'est-ce qu'il en sait le fqih,<br />
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Des gens d'il y a dix mille ans ?<br />
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(Poème paru dans la revue Tifinagh, no 2, février-mars 1994)<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitsauZXYd416fDuaGIQHoiRpWGtBVdlUbxethyphenhyphenQdcpCxKPF4qFwINmiwPhYid3Bbq52l3r_w4RkCk6rXIB7ljTZciU-_YX1dXmBraoghjqCrxpmkE5UR0ucjonNMSqYZXZQUPE_cTz5nk/s1600/imagesCANM82VU.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="132" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitsauZXYd416fDuaGIQHoiRpWGtBVdlUbxethyphenhyphenQdcpCxKPF4qFwINmiwPhYid3Bbq52l3r_w4RkCk6rXIB7ljTZciU-_YX1dXmBraoghjqCrxpmkE5UR0ucjonNMSqYZXZQUPE_cTz5nk/s320/imagesCANM82VU.jpg" width="197" /></a></div>L'image du juif dans l'imaginaire berbère semble donc avoir été tout à fait positive, voire privilégiée, à telle enseigne que, dans les contes populaires, un rôle de choix lui est dévolu : c'est à lui que revient la tâche honorable de dénouer les situations compliquées. Autre témoignage : les vieillards du Sud marocain se souviennent des joutes poétiques avec des Imedyazen (poètes juifs). Les traces juives dans le folklore berbère se rencontrent jusque dans les rituels à caractère essentiellement musulman, tel le cérémonial de la fête de l'achoura. Celle-ci, censée commémorer l'assassinat des fils d'Ali, gendre du Prophète, comporte des aspersions d'eau qui auraient pour objet de rappeler l'épisode biblique du passage de la mer Rouge. Ces aspersions durent dix jours, la dixième nuit étant baptisée Id n'youdayen (fête des juifs) et donnant lieu à des réjouissances comportant port de masques et chants « avec accent juif » (sic).<br />
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Y a-t-il réciprocité et trouve-t-on des traces berbères encore vivantes dans l'imaginaire et le folklore des juifs maghrébins ? Cette question mérite investigation dans la mesure où sont encore en vie, principalement en Israël évidemment, des personnes âgées prêtes à évoquer les bribes de folklore berbère encore vivaces dans leur mémoire.<br />
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Il existe bel et bien une pratique traditionnelle propre, semble-t-il, aux seuls juifs du Maroc et inconnue dans les autres communautés juives, puisque ne figurant pas dans le calendrier canonique hébraïque. Il s'agit d'une journée supplémentaire, ajoutée à la fête de Pâque, qui dure ailleurs sept jours et au Maroc huit jours. Nahum Soulschz, auteur d'ouvrages sur les juifs du bassin méditerranéen, publia en hébreu en 1933, à la suite de voyages d'études effectués au début du siècle, une monographie sur la Kahina, Dahia al Kahina. Certains passages de la préface de cet ouvrage suffisent pour illustrer l'attitude apologétique de cet historien, sérieux par ailleurs :<br />
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« Le présent ouvrage n'est pas une fiction, ni le récit romantique d'un épisode ou d'un personnage historique, mais le fruit d'une recherche minutieuse et critique sur la base d'un matériau historique et folklorique sérieux et significatif que nous ont légué les écrivains arabes et les contes traditionnels africains. Les actes héroïques, ainsi que la sagesse de l'héroïne en question ont été consignés dans les écrits d'une douzaine d'auteurs. Le plus grand de ces derniers, Ibn Khaldun, homme d'Afrique, affirme que les informations contenues dans ses écrits ont été puisées par les anciens dans des sources berbères authentiques... C'est lui également qui affirme que la Kahina... et les hommes de sa tribu, les Gherraouas, pratiquaient la religion juive et que leur lieu d'origine était la Palestine. [...] j'ai découvert qu'elle appartenait à une dynastie antique de prêtres (cohen, pluriel : cohanim) qui ont été refoulés en Afrique et ont connu, là-bas, la gloire et occupé des postes de commande. Ils ont aussi introduit la culture et les traditions juives tout autour de l'immense désert du Sahara.<br />
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La vérité historique des événements rapportés ici est attestée par les meilleurs chercheurs français contemporains (Mercier, Gautier...). Les écrivains français baptisaient généralement la Kahina la « Jeanne d'Arc » d'Afrique, certains d'entre eux se laissant aller à leur imagination et, à partir de récits légendaires, créèrent des fictions romantico-érotiques n'ayant aucun fondement historique. La vérité est que le merveilleux dans la figure de la Kahina dépasse même celui de Jeanne d'Arc [...].<br />
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De fait, il est arrivé à la Kahina ce qui arriva aux tribus juives héroïques dans les steppes d'Arabie au temps de Mohamed. Passé sous silence dans les écrits juifs, l'événement nous a été transmis seulement par les écrivains arabes [...].<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgsEFfyeck3ye6ii0n9Hu4ZnXycJzyY_sVmtt2FYdJ35xTXjZqnnJn2zA3CQdZrkDjRutIleySGBwTnn2ORxiXjQ0RbaWsZXlXFKaGN8G21yCHGnyEmnfIA1sfh6A7hqlU8KL49jL2m4Y/s1600/250px-Berber_Jews.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="173" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgsEFfyeck3ye6ii0n9Hu4ZnXycJzyY_sVmtt2FYdJ35xTXjZqnnJn2zA3CQdZrkDjRutIleySGBwTnn2ORxiXjQ0RbaWsZXlXFKaGN8G21yCHGnyEmnfIA1sfh6A7hqlU8KL49jL2m4Y/s320/250px-Berber_Jews.jpg" width="250" /></a></div>Ce fut là le sort de l'histoire politique du peuple juif : les lacunes laissées par nos anciens ont été comblées par des historiens étrangers de qui nous dépendons pour la connaissance de notre propre passé. [...] Les écrivains arabes ont été séduits par la vie, la sagesse et l'héroïsme de cette femme et nous ont, au surplus, transmis quelques-unes de ses paroles flamboyantes contre les envahisseurs qu'aucun Arabe n'eût pu inventer de toutes pièces. »<br />
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Trad. Shlomo Elbaz<br />
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L'autre historien, J. W. Hirschberg, est beaucoup plus circonspect à l'endroit des sources prétendûment historiques, y compris les écrits d'Ibn Khaldun. Hirschberg distingue trois écoles, trois approches : 1. ceux pour qui toute l'histoire de la Kahina n'est qu'une légende ; 2. ceux qui, au contraire, croient à l'authenticité de l'ensemble des faits ; 3. ceux qui pensent qu'autour d'un noyau historique s'est tissé un réseau d'éléments légendaires. Hirschberg se placerait lui-même dans la troisième catégorie. Quoiqu'il en soit, le débat se poursuit autour de cette figure qui continue à galvaniser les militants et à inspirer poètes et artistes de la mouvance berbère.<br />
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Disons pour conclure que l'immigration en Israël de la quasi totalité des juifs berbères a pratiquement mis fin à cette aventure passionnante de deux civilisations appartenant aux deux extrémités du monde méditerranéen qui se rencontrèrent, s'épousèrent en une osmose socio-culturelle, parallèle et complémentaire de cette autre aventure qu'était la symbiose andalouse.<br />
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La fin de cette coexistence a condamné le partenaire juif de cette « association » à perdre jusqu'au souvenir de la vie commune et de ses acquis humains, alors que le partenaire berbère - principalement l'élite militante amazigh - a plutôt tendance à rechercher (et à idéaliser quelque peu) les sources, affinités et tous signes d'affiliation susceptibles de contrebalancer le poids de l'élément arabo-islamique, l ?élément juif dont l'impact ne présuppose aucun désir de domination serait à même de nourrir l'identité berbère et d'en accentuer l'originalité.<br />
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L'expérience judéo-berbère devrait prendre sa place, aux côtés de l'expérience judéo-andalouse, dans le kaléidoscope des civilisations méditerranéennes où pourraient puiser les peuples de la région.<br />
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* Fqih : ascète musulman <br />
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Shlomo Elbaz, professeur retraité de l'Université hébraïque de Jérusalem, est né à Marrakech et vit en Israël depuis 1955. Critique littéraire, auteur d'études sur la poésie moderne (Lectures d'Anabase de St John-Perse) et de nombreux travaux sur la culture judéo-maghrébine, il milite pour la paix et dans le domaine social.<br />
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Accueil Histoire Culture Photos <br />
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<a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></div></div></div>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-46969766333867005672011-03-04T23:28:00.000-05:002015-12-18T16:45:20.773-05:00The Berbers In North Africa<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: blue;"><strong>Introduction </strong></span><br />
For almost three thousand years the Berber peoples of North Africa have clung to their distinct identity and language, sheltering in the mountains and in desert oases from infringing invaders. <br />
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Most of the North African population is originally of Berber stock that has been largely Arabised. There remain 20 million people who are still distinctly Berber, speaking their ancient dialects as a first language (although most Berbers are bi-lingual) and clinging to their old culture. <br />
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There are some real differences between Berbers and Arabs, but they also have many crosscultural links. Arabic is the official language of all Maghreb states and it is also the language of religion and culture. Living in a mountainous environment and in a tribal society divided by many dialects, there has always been much political fragmentation amongst the Berbers. There is little pan-Berber nationalism as they identify primarily with their family and tribe. Fighting used to be endemic to their way of life and they have a intense love of independence.<br />
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Their origin is shrouded in mystery. Some think they crossed over from the Iberian Peninsula many thousands of years ago, others that they have always lived in North Africa. Many invaders and colonists reached the Maghreb, including Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and French. <br />
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The name Berber evolved from the Greek custom of calling all non-Greek speaking people Barbarians. The Berbers call themselves "Imazighen", the free.<br />
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The Berbers originally lived all over the Maghreb from western Egypt to the Atlantic. The culturally distinct Berber communities of today survive in pockets in the mountains and in the Sahara desert, scattered over a large area from the Siwa Oasis in Egypt to the Atlantic and from the Niger river and the Sahel in the south to the Mediterranean. Their density increases from east to west, Morocco being the state with most Berbers living in it.<br />
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Today they are concentrated mainly in the Rif and the Atlas mountains (and also in the Sous plain) of Morocco, and in the Kabyle and Aures mountains as well as the Mzab and other Saharan oases of Algeria. Small communities are still found on Djerba Island and in a few mainland villages in Tunisia, in the Jebel Nafusah mountain and the Ghudamis and Ghat oases of Libya, and in the Siwa oasis in Egypt.<br />
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Many Berbers are farmers who grow wheat, barley, fruits, nuts, vegetables and olives for oil in the lowlands in winter and graze flocks of sheep and goats in the mountains during the summer. Some are still nomads who migrate with their camels and herds around the desert plateaus and oases. Their fortified villages are often located high on the mountain ridges and are composed of houses, a mosque, a fortified threshing floor (kasbah) and a gathering place for the assembly of elders (Jama'ah) which controls village life. <br />
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Increasing population density and poverty have caused many Berbers to migrate to the large cities of North Africa in search of employment, there to form an urban proletariat. Others have emigrated to France, which has the largest Berber population outside of the Maghreb, and also to Spain, Belgium and other countries of western Europe.<br />
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Most Berbers are Sunni Muslims of the Maliki school, with Sufi orders very popular amongst them. Small communities of 'Ibadis (an ancient Islamic Khariji sect) survive in some isolated areas.<br />
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The foreign invaders usually occupied the coastlands, so the Berbers found refuge in the inaccessible mountain and desert areas where they could continue to speak their own languages undisturbed, and live in accordance with their own customary laws. <br />
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Morocco has the main Berber concentration: 10.4 million (40% of the population). Algeria comes next with 6.5 million (25% of the population). Tunisia has 200,000, Libya and Egypt each have some 150,000 Berbers, whilst Mauretania has some 50,000 (mainly Tuaregs). Niger and Mali have 650,000 each - mainly Tuareg tribesmen and Burkina-Fasso 300,000 Tuaregs.<br />
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Berber communities contain clans claiming descent from the Prophet (Sharifs), who are regarded as holy men having supernatural powers. <br />
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<strong><span style="color: blue;">THE MAIN BERBER GROUPS TODAY<img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtvrVtJe0hAhwcsSUvdFCXqATrjbAQfw7STza0swEhAoQ0tGZl8aXnoipu05cfwkhJB7Iw-J7vtmKk9oi1ftKw2jSgJm_CVeP2jxivn2z80WOGnhfLoNF1ECDeQspoX9JmzypoUAW44r1S/s1600/untitled.bmp" /></span></strong><br />
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MOROCCO (40% of the total population - 10.4 million in 3main groups):<br />
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Shluh, 5.1 million in the High and Anti-Atlas and the Sous, speaking Shilha (Tashilhait).<br />
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Berraber, 3.2 million in the Middle Atlas speaking Tamazight.<br />
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Riff, 1.8 million in the north speaking Rif (Tarifit, Zenatiya).<br />
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Others: Harratin, Zenaga, Tuareg, 0.3 million. <br />
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ALGERIA (25% of the population - 6.5 million in 4 main groups):<br />
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Kabyle, 4.4 million speaking Kabyle, (Tamazirt, also called Zwawah).<br />
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Shawiya, 1.7 million speaking Shawiya in the Aures massif.<br />
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Mzab, 0.16 million in the Mzab oases.<br />
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Tuareg, 50,000 in the Ahaggar mountains of the far south and nearby Saharan areas, speaking Tamarshak.<br />
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In LIBYA, 4 groups of Berbers, including Zenaga and Tuareg, total population of 150,000, living in Jebel Nafusah,ÿGhat and Ghudamis oasis and roaming the Sahara.<br />
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In TUNISIA, 200,000 Berbers, mainly on Djerba Island and some villages of the south.<br />
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In EGYPT, 150,000 still speaking their dialects, mainly in the Siwa oasis. <br />
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In MAURITANIA some 50,000 Tuaregs, Zenaga and others. Manyÿtribes in Mauritania are of Berber origin, but have mixed with the invading Beduin tribes and now speak Hasaniya Arabic. <br />
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<strong><span style="color: blue;">SOME BERBER PEOPLES</span></strong><br />
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1. <strong><span style="color: purple;">MOROCCO</span></strong><br />
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<u><span style="color: #351c75;">THE SHLUH</span></u><br />
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The Shluh live in the Sous plain and in the High-Atlas and Anti-Atlas Mountains of Morocco. In the mountains their villages lie in the high altitude river valleys (over 2000m). The houses are built in steep terraces, dominated by the Kasbah, the communal fortified granary and threshing floor. They use the mountain slopes for pasture and cultivation. Lower lying land is irrigated by diverting water from the wadis and can yield two crops a year (cereals in winter and vegetables in summer). The shepherds migrate seasonally with their sheep between the winter lowlands and the summer uplands. <br />
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The Shluh language is called Tashilhait and has many local dialects. The Sous plain was a famous centre of Berber poetry and literature. Many Shluh have migrated to the large cities, especially Casablanca, where they are active in trade.<br />
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<u><span style="color: #351c75;">THE RIF</span></u><br />
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Some thirty Rif tribes live in the Rif mountains of northeastern Morocco, a district bordered by two rivers and 145 miles of Mediterranean coastline. The Rif work in farming, growing fig and olive trees that cover the mountain slopes, in herding and in sardine fishing. <br />
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They fought fiercely against Spanish and French occupation in the 1920s, led by the famous Abd el-Krim who established an independent Rif republic. Finally submitting to the colonial powers, many of them served in the French and Spanish armies where they were valued for their fighting capabilities. Today many of them serve in the Moroccan armed forces.<br />
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<strong><span style="color: blue;">THE BERRABER OF THE MIDDLE ATLAS</span></strong><br />
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The Berraber are semi-nomadic pastoral tribes who live in permanent villages for part of the year and also move between their summer pastures in the highlands and the lower lying winter grazing lands. Their area is less densely populated than that of most other Berber groups, so they tend less to emigrate. They also stick more to customary law than the southern Shluh. The Ait-Atta are a famous nomadic Berraber tribe.<br />
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<strong><span style="color: blue;">THE HARRATIN</span></strong><br />
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The Harratin are "Black Berbers" descended from African slaves or tribes that moved north into Berber territory and adopted Berber language and culture. They were treated as inferior by the "White Berbers". The Harratin live mainly in South Morocco, Mauritania and the Sahara oases where they are farmers who supply their produce to the nomadic tribes. They used to pay tribute to the Berber or Arab nomadic tribes in return for armed protection. They are still a modest people, content with their subordinate role in society.<br />
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2. <strong><span style="color: purple;">ALGERIA</span></strong><br />
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<u><span style="color: #351c75;">THE SHAWIYA</span></u><br />
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The Shawiya live in the Aures Mountains of northeastern Algeria (Batnah province), an area of steep cliffs and long straight ridges which contains the highest mountains of Algeria, reaching 2280m. Their villages are built of stone houses lying in terraces one above the other, dominated by a fortified granary (guelaa, kasbah). The Shawia live in their upland villages only in the summer, as in winter they migrate with their flocks to the lowlands, where they pitch tents or live in caves. They return to the highlands in summer to irrigate the land and grow sorghum, vegetables, apricots and apples.<br />
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The Shawiya have been relatively isolated, trading mainly with their Kabyle neighbours. They strongly opposed the French in the Algerian revolution of the 1950s. <br />
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<u><span style="color: #351c75;">THE KABYLES</span></u><br />
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The Kabyle live in a mountainous coastal region in northern Algeria known as Kabylia, that stretches from the Mediterranean Sea to the southern slopes of the Grand Kabylie Mountains. <br />
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In Kabylia the Berbers and their culture have survived relatively unscathed. They fiercely resisted all invaders and were never fully subdued. Many Kabyles fought against the French in the war for independence in the 1950s and 1960s.<br />
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Kabyle villages contain stone houses with red tile roofs. They were divided into clans and castes, with smiths and butchers kept on the fringes. Each village was administered by an assembly of adult males (Jama'a) and customary law dealt with all problems of property and crime.<br />
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They work mainly in farming, growing figs and olives and herding goats. Due to overpopulation poverty was widespread inducing many to migrate to France and to the large cities of Algeria. Recently there has been much government sponsored investment in the area in an effort to improve the situation. The Kabyle are also skilled craftsmen working with wood, silver, and wool.<br />
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<u><span style="color: #351c75;">THE MZABIS</span></u><br />
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The Mzabis number 150,000 living mainly in the Mzab oases in the Sahara, some 560 kilometers south of Algiers. They are Ibadis, who in the 11th century they were forced to flee from Tiaret and found shelter in the most inhospitable region they could find along the Oued-Mzab river valley. They founded their first settlement, el-Ateuf, in 1010 AD. They are unique in being the only city dwellers in the Sahara.<br />
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They founded a league of five walled cities administered by an assembly of 12 scholars centred on Ghardaia their administrative capital. Beni-Isjan is their holy town where strangers are not allowed to stay overnight. Melika is populated mainly by black Africans, and Bou-Nouara is built on a rock overlooking the river. Two other towns, Garara and Berian were added in the 17th centuries.<br />
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'Ibadism is a strict puritan and legalistic form of Islam. No non-'Ibadi is permitted to enter a Mzabi mosque. The M'zabis do not marry ouside their community. The men may travel all over Algeria working mainly as shop keepers and running small businesses, but the women must stay in the oasis. <br />
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The Mzab oasis is a large palm grove irrigated by over 4000 wells. It stretches for 8 kilometers along the riverbed that is usually dry, water being found underground and tapped by the wells. Fruit, grains and vegetables are grown beneath the date palms. A small industrial zone has been set up to provide additional jobs. The traditional handicrafts are pottery, brassware, jewelry and carpets.<br />
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<u><span style="color: #351c75;">THE TUAREGS</span></u><br />
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The Tuaregs are a nomadic Berber people numbering some 1.5 million people and living mainly in the Sahel states of Niger, Mali, and Burkina-Fasso and in the Saharan districts of the Maghreb. They migrate over a huge area of the Sahara and the Sahel crisscrossing existing national borders. Their political organisations also extend across national boundaries and as a result they live in constant strife with the central authorities. The terrible droughts of the 70s and 80s have hit them hard killing most of their livestock and forcing many of them to look for jobs in farming, trade and industry.<br />
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The Tuaregs live in tribal confederations that include the tribes of the Ahaggar and Ajjer mountains in the north, and the Asben, Ifora, Itesen, Aulliminden and Kel-Tademaket in the southern steppes and savannahs. The southerners breed zebu cattle and camels, the northerners mainly goats. In the past they were great raiders of caravans and of other tribes, provided guides for trans-Saharan caravans, exacted tribute from them and engaged in the salt trade.<br />
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Their society was feudal and hierarchical, and included noble, religious, vassal, craftsmen and slave classes which are now being gradually eroded. When on the move they live in tents of red dyed skin. All adult males wear a distinctive blue veil over the lower part of the face which it is a shame for them to remove. They speak Tamarshak and have preserved an ancient script (Tifinagh) similar to that used by the ancient Libyans.<br />
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<strong><span style="color: blue;">HISTORICAL SURVEY</span></strong><br />
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1. ANCIENT TIMES<br />
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Berbers have lived in the Maghreb from remote times. The early Libyans were Berbers influenced by the ancient Egyptian civilisation which filtered through to them across the massive desert expanses.<br />
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All we know about the Berbers in ancient times comes from the writings of those who colonised them: Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans. These foreigners had an impact on the Berber population of the coastal towns, but the inhabitants of the mountain and desert areas remained relatively untouched.<br />
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Berber society was made up of many small tribes, who would unite briefly to fight off intruders and would then return to their independent lifestyle. Fragmentation, fighting against each other and love of freedom have always characterised Berber culture.<br />
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2. CARTHAGE 814 BC - 140 BC<br />
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Phoenician traders started colonising the North African coast in the 10th century BC. They founded Carthage in 814 BC and it developed into a powerful empire which at its zenith controlled the whole African coastline from the Gulf of Sidra to the Atlantic and included parts of Spain as well as the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. It established many colonies to protect its trade routes.<br />
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Carthaginian culture was Semitic and it strongly influenced the Berbers' religion and language. It taught them better farming methods and encouraged a move from seminomadic to a stable way of life. <br />
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Whilst the Phoenicians settled in the western parts of the Maghreb, the Greeks colonised the coasts of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania (Libya) which developed somewhat separately from the rest of the Maghreb, being more tied to Egypt and the Hellenistic civilisation that developed there after its conquest by Alexander the Great.<br />
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3. THE ROMAN PERIOD 146 BC - 429 AD<br />
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Carthage was destroyed by the Romans (146 BC), who called the Berbers Mauri and Numidae. The Romans gradually established their provinces in Africa by settling veteran soldiers and pacifying the interior.<br />
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During the wars between Rome and Carthage and later under Roman rule, some Berber states emerged but they were all incorporated in the great Roman provinces of North Africa: Numidia, Mauretania and Africa which became very prosperous.<br />
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The cities flourished under Roman rule and there was a rise in the population which is estimated at 6.5 million in the 3rd century AD of which 40% lived in the towns. Carthage, the largest, had a population of 250,000. Ruins of the great Roman towns and public works can still be seen all over the Maghreb. <br />
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Roman ruled lasted until the fifth century AD. The inhabitants of the coastal towns became Romanised, acquiring Roman citizenship and speaking Latin, but the tribes of the interior were barely touched and continued their old way of life in the mountains and deserts. The Romans were content to receive tribute and auxiliary troops from them, leaving the tribal chiefs in charge of local affairs. <br />
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Christianity spread quickly in North Africa and was firmly established by the 3rd century. Tertullian, Cyprian and Augustine were all famous North African Church Fathers. <br />
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The independent Berber spirit expressed itself in the adoption of sectarian teachings, such as Montanism, Donatism, Pelagianism and Arianism. Especially in the 4th century when Rome's power was waning, there was much religious infighting with the dominant party persecuting the "heretics". This made it easier for Vandals, Byzantines and later for the Muslim Arabs to conquer the land.<br />
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4. VANDAL 429 - 533 AD and Byzantine 533 - 643 AD PERIODS<br />
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The Vandals were a Germanic tribe who crossed from Spain into North Africa in 429 AD under their king Gaiseric. This invasion brought much destruction and economic decline and it further split Christianity as the Vandals belonged to the Arian sect. During their reign, independent Berber kingdoms managed to arise in remote inland areas. <br />
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The Byzantine Empire destroyed the Vandal Kingdom in 533 AD. It was however weakened by its endless wars with Persia and could not control the vast Maghreb spaces. Byzantine forces held the coastal towns and played off Berber tribes against each other. Inland the Berbers were practically independent and busy fighting each other as usual. There were three main Berber groups: the Luwata tribes in the east, the Sanhaja in the west and center, and the Zanata in the south and the south-west.<br />
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5. THE ARAB MUSLIM INVASIONS 643 - 711 AD<br />
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Islamic armies started raids from Egypt into Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in 642 AD. The Byzantines responded by bribing them to leave. <br />
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In 670, 'Uqbah ibn Nafi', later regarded as the patron saint of all the Maghreb, invaded Tunisia with an Arab army and founded the garrison city of al-Qayrawan, which became the main centre of Islam in the Maghreb. From Ifriqiyeh (Tunisia) he gradually extended Arab rule over the whole Maghreb. In 683 'Uqbah undertook an expedition into southern Morocco but on his return he was defeated and killed by a Berber tribal chief named Kusayla. <br />
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For 15 years the Berbers under Kusayla and later under a woman leader, Kahinah, held out against the troops of the Umayyad Caliphate. Musa ibn-Nusayr finally used Berber tribes converted to Islam to help him subdue all of North Africa between 703 and 711. He encouraged Berbers to join his army with promises of rich rewards in plunder. Berbers formed the nucleus of the Muslim forces which under their general Tarik subjugated all the Maghreb and started the conquest of Spain in 711.<br />
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6. UNDER ISLAM<br />
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Only some 100,000 Arabs actually settled in the new province of Ifriqiyah. The Berbers soldiers however were not given their promised fair share of the spoils of war and were treated as inferiors by the Arabs. In protest, many converted to the Khariji sect and revolted against the Umayyad Arabs (740 - 742), managing to free most of North Africa for a while. <br />
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In 761 the 'Abassid Caliphs of Baghdad regained control over Ifriqqiyeh, but it took them another forty years of incessant fighting to reconquer all of the eastern Maghreb (Egypt to Algeria). In the remaining western areas small independent Khariji Berber states arose, including Tahart, Sidjilmassa, Tlemcen, Nakur and Barghawata. In the 9th century, Idris I who claimed descent from 'Ali ibn Abi-Talib set up a Shi'a Kingdom in Fez aided by some Berber tribes. <br />
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In 908 the Isma'ilis, with the help of the Berber Kutama tribes, succeeded in setting up a Fatimid kingdom in Qayrouan. From this springboard they later conquered Egypt and established the Fatimid Caliphate as a rival to the 'Abassid Empire of Baghdad. Many Berber tribes then became Shi'a, leaving the Kharijism they had accepted in the preceeding century.<br />
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The Fatimids however were more interested in the eastern Arab world and lost interest in the Maghreb. Without a strong central government, Berber tribes again fought each other, none of them being strong enough to establish its dominance. The wars between the Sanhajah tribes of the east, fighting for the Shi'a-Isma'ili Fatimids of Cairo and the western Zanatah tribes fighting for the Sunni Ummayyad Caliphs of Cordoba evolved into a Hundred Years War of the Maghreb.<br />
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The Isma'ili Zirid state in Ifriqiyeh finally disintegrated and a new dynasty, that of the Hammadids, arose in its place and accepted the authority of the Sunni 'Abassid Caliphs of Baghdad. The Fatimids, fearing an attack on their western flank, encouraged the Arab Beduin tribes of the Beni-Hillal to invade the whole of the Maghreb in 1051. <br />
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This invasion was a catastrophe, causing decades of warfare between various Berber tribes and the invading Beduins. The Beni-Hillal were later joined by the Beni-Sulaym tribes, and as they slowly moved westward, they destroyed the Berber farming economy, forcing many settled tribes to become Arabised nomads. <br />
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In the 11th century there was a Sunni revival amongst the nomadic Berber Lamtunah tribe who used to migrate between southern Morocco and the Niger river. They invaded south Morocco where they founded the town of Marrakesh as their capital in 1070. Under Yusuf ibn-Tashufin they conquered first the western and central Maghreb and then Muslim Spain (1062-1092). This al-Murabitun (Almoravid) dynasty built up its Empire with amazing speed but was soon exhausted by its war effort. <br />
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During the Almoravid reign, Spanish Muslim culture and art spread into the Maghreb, and many beautiful monuments were built in the cities of Morocco.<br />
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Ibn-Tumart, a puritan reformer converted the Masmuda tribe of the Atlas mountains to his teachings and then rebelled against the Almoravids and set up the al-Muwahhidun (Almohad) Kingdom in its place (1147). 'Abd al-Mu'min, their first Caliph, expelled all Christians from the coastal ports they still held and conquered all the Maghreb from the Gulf of Syrte (Libya) to the Atlantic. <br />
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The al-Muwahhidun built a great Berber Empire over the whole of North Africa and of Muslim Spain with its capital at Marrakesh. It lasted for a century and saw a flowering of Berber Islamic civilisation which was greatly influenced by the culture of Muslim Spain (al-Andalus). During their reign many great mosques, palaces and schools were erected in the towns of the Maghreb. Also during that period, Sufism (Islamic mysticism) penetrated North Africa from Spain and gradually gained a hold over the majority of the population, setting up many Sufi brotherhoods. <br />
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As the Almohad Empire disintegrated, three Berber dynasties arose in new centres of power (13th-15th centuries): the Marinid dynasty at Fez, the 'Abd al-Waddid dynasty at Tlemcen and that of the Hafsids at Tunis. This was the basis for the modern division of the Maghreb into Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. These dynasties constantly fought against each other whilst at the same time having to quell rebellions by tribes in their own domains. <br />
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During all these centuries the Arab Beduin tribes continued to steadily advance westwards, alternately fighting and intermingling with the Berbers. The Berber Sultans used them as mercenaries in their armies, and this facilitated their spread to the west. <br />
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The Beduins destroyed much of the fertile farming land worked by the Berber peasants and cut down the forests. They grazed their herds in cultivated fields, forcing Berbers to abandon their villages, fields, gardens and orchards. The economy of the Maghreb has never quite recovered from this terrible blow. <br />
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Many Berber tribes responded to the Beduin threat by retreating into their inaccessible strongholds in the mountains and deserts, retaining only a thin veneer of Islam over their semi-pagan culture. In the 15th and 16th centuries they were re-islamised by the Marabouts, fanatic Sufis from southern Morocco, who preached a return to a pure Islamic way of life and resisted all foreign influences. <br />
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In Morocco, the Arabised cities and plains under central government control were known as Bled el-Mekhzen, whilst the semi-autonomous Berber mountain areas were known as Bled el-Siba.<br />
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7. MODERN TIMES<br />
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Muslim Spain was reconquered by the Christian kingdoms of the north in the 15th century. Many of the expelled Moors and Jews settled in the Maghreb, enriching the area with their culture and skills.<br />
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In the 16th century the expanding Ottoman Empire reached towards the Maghreb. Facing increased Spanish and Portuguese pressure the Ottomans aided local pirate chiefs in their attacks on European shipping and bases. <br />
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The Barbary pirates were very powerful in the 17th century and they turned Algiers into an important city. The Turkish Maghreb was divided into three protectorates, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, each developing in its own separate way. Whilst Algeria and Tunisia were firmly under Ottoman rule, Morocco was semi-independent under its 'Alawi dynasty and isolated from the outside world.<br />
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From 1830 onwards France started to establish its colonial rule in the Maghreb, first over Algeria (1847), then over Tunisia (1881) and finally over Morocco (1912). Spain took control over Western Morocco and Italy over Libya. Following the takeover, European immigration was encouraged, introducing the French language and culture (in Libya it was Italian). The colonial powers faced many rebellions, in which Berbers tribes played a leading part, but the modern European armies ultimately destroyed the political and military power of the tribes. Strong central rule was imposed on each country.<br />
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Following World War II all North African states gained their independence from the colonial powers: Libya in 1951, Morocco and Tunisia in 1956, Mauretania in 1960 and Algeria finally achieved its independence in 1962 after a violent struggle. Berbers took a leading part in the armed struggle against the colonial powers in all Maghreb lands. <br />
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After independence the new regimes in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia tried consolidate their power by stressing the unity of their Arabic heritage. A new elite from the Arabised large cities emerged to replace the French colonials who left, creating a new middle class of civil servants, army personnel and technicians. The Berber districts were relatively neglected, and this fueled an undercurrent of Berber dissatisfaction with Arab hegemony. <br />
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Improved hygiene had lowered the mortality rate so that the population increase in the Maghreb is amongst the highest in the world (over 3 %). Coupled with industrialisation, this has fostered a mass migration of peasants from the countryside to the cities were they form a proletariat living in shantytowns. Many also migrated to France and Spain and other Western European countries. These changes have resulted in a breakdown of the extended family and of traditional communities, causing an intensive mixing of the population in the cities of the Maghreb. The Berbers in Europe however have witnessed a renewed cultural revival expressed in Berber publications. <br />
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In the Maghreb, despite the growth of the towns the population is still mainly rural. Society is in a transition stage and thus displays many tensions. On the one hand there is a resurgence of fundamentalist Islam, whilst on the other there is an emphasis on modernisation and secularisation. There is a state encouraged Arabisation of the education system opposed by a resurgence of Berber identity. The uniqueness of the Berber culture is still a fact of life in the Maghreb, but it seems to have no political expression because of the historic tribalism and fragmentation of Berber society. <br />
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BERBERS IN INDEPENDENT MOROCCO<br />
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At independence in 1956, Morocco's Berbers were divided on how best to relate to the new state. The Riffians who had been fairly autonomous under the French and strongly represented in the armed forces, feared the results of integration in a unified state. The Middle Atlas Berbers were supporters of the nationalist Istiklal movement, but were soon disappointed to see the Arab elite of Fez and Rabat take hold of most power centres whilst the Berbers seemed to be marginalised and pushed into poverty. <br />
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Most Berbers supported the monarchy because they saw it as the system best suited to preserving their special identity. Opposed to them were Arabising forces pushing for a uniform modern state in which Berber cultural identity would be suppressed. The monarchy in turn relied on the conservative Berbers as a counterbalance to the unstable and radical political forces of the cities who tried to abolish or at least limit the King's authority. <br />
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There were uprisings in Tafilalet (1957),and in the Rif(1958). Later, in 1971 there was an army coup attempt. Although some Riff officers were involved in the coup attempts, the King continued to use the Berbers as a counterbalance to the power of the Istiqlal party. Hassan II (who has a Berber wife, Latifa) gave Berbers a leading role in the armed forces and in the state bureaucracy. In the 1980s there was a marked awakening of Berber language and culture, and the central government started to invest more resources in developing the Berber areas. The King has succeeded in maintaining a balance between the various sectors of Moroccon society, thus ensuring a period of political stability.<br />
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The monarchy and Islam are the two forces uniting the diverse groups of Morocco. Should the monarchy fall, it would be difficult to foresee who would emerge at the centre of power. <br />
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BERBERS IN INDEPENDENT ALGERIA<br />
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The Berbers played a major role in the rebellion against France. Following independence in 1962 they found themselves marginalised by the one party FLN bureaucracy who tried to impose unity on the new state by pushing for more Arabisation. The Kabylia and Aures regions were neglected, leading to impoverishment and massive emigration to the large cities and to Europe. As a result, there were sporadic Kabyle disturbances, the most serious in 1980 in Tizi Ouzou. <br />
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The government responded by giving in to some demands, and investing in the development of the Berber regions. The new policy aimed at avoiding anything that would alienate the Berbers and ensured that they were well represented at all levels of the government and state bureaucracy. The growth of fundamentalist Islam in response to the deteriorating economy, has however fuelled increased pressures at Arabisation, and the Kabyles and other Berber groups remain suspicious of the status of their language and culture in face of continued efforts at what is termed linguistic homogenisation - meaning the imposition of the hegemony of the Arabic language. <br />
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With Algeria now torn between secular socialism and fundamental Islam, the problem of the distinct Berber identity and how it is best expressed remains basically unresolved.<br />
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RELIGION<br />
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In remote times the Berbers were animists worshipping rocks, springs, rivers and mountains and venerating the sun, moon and stars. Their legends, beliefs, and ceremonies still reflect some of this ancient religion. Later they borrowed the Gods of their Phoenician and Roman colonisers. <br />
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Judaism gained proselytes in North Africa from early times, preparing the way for Christianity which flourished in the first centuries AD in spite of initial persecutions. One way the Berbers could express their resentment against Roman domination was by enthusiastically embracing the doctrines of any group opposed to the official Church of Rome - Montanism, Donatism, Arianism, etc.- resulting in many religious quarrels and persecutions.<br />
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Following the Muslim conquest many Berbers converted to the orthodox Sunni Islam of their Umayyad Arab invaders. Their independent spirit however soon expressed itself in their conversion to rebellious Khariji doctrines. Later they turned to the Shi'a branch of Islam, including Fatimid Isma'ilism. <br />
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The Almoravid and Almohad Empires succeeded in re-establishing Sunnism throughout the Maghreb whilst destroying all the "heretics": Christian, Shi'a and Khariji. That was when the last indigenous Christians finally disappeared from North Africa in the 12th century. The Jews, though restricted, were tolerated, and were later strengthened by the many Jews expelled from Spain in 1492. The Jewish community survived into the twentieth century when most of them emigrated to the newly established state of Israel. <br />
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A few Khariji (Ibadi) communities survived by fleeing to the remote mountains and desert areas. <br />
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In the 15th and 16th centuries small Marabout (Sufi) states arose in Morocco. They were instrumental in re-Islamising many of the Berber tribes after the Beduin invasions. Many Sufi brotherhoods were founded, and their chiefs and saints were regarded as intercessors between man and God who possessed supernatural powers and could protect their followers from evil forces. The tombs of the dead saints became places of pilgrimage where their power (Baraka, Blessing) was available to the believers. <br />
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Though fanatically loyal to Islam, the Berbers retain many pre-Islamic, pagan practices, especially in their agricultural rites. Much of this can be classed as Folk-Islam, and it includes ceremonies for obtaining rain, harvest rites, bonfires, the concept of Baraka and the cult of saints. <br />
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For Berbers the existence of hostile spirits and the need for protection is an accepted fact of life. They turn to amulets, talismans, Fatima's hand, pilgrimages to the tombs of holy men and similar practices believed to be effective in protecting them. <br />
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Berbers also offer animal sacrifices much more than other Muslim communities. There are the customary sacrifices for 'Id al-Adha, but animals are also sacrificed on the seventh day after a child is born ('Usbu', the day it is named). It is believed that by merit of the sacrifice the child passes from a state of impurity (haram) to a state of purity (hallal). Sacrifices are also offered on the pilgrimages to a saint's tomb, before ploughing the fields, and for curing illnesses or overcome sterility. For Berbers sacrifices renew the alliance between the living and the dead, and the shed blood binds their ancestors to protect to the family against all evil forces.<br />
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In their farming rites Berbers stress the cult of the dead. The fertility of their fields depends on the favour of the spirits of the Earth. Ploughing and sowing are seen as symbols of marriage and are seasons of rejoicing, whilst the harvest at the end of the farming year symbolises death and burial, and is accompanied by mourning and by funeral rites.<br />
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Berber festivals follow the lunar calendar for the Muslim feasts and the solar calendar of the seasons for the agricultural feasts. <br />
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SOCIETY<br />
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Berber society is tribal and is based on Islam and the clan. Islam strengthened the ancient patriarchal system by emphsising that submission to your parents is synonymous with obedience to God and it also sublimated many old customs and incorporated them into its religious ritual. It is an all-encompassing system and prescribes the code of conduct that governs all private and public life, whether religious or secular. <br />
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The code of good manners is called "Hashumah" and it combines the concepts of honour, respect, modesty and shame. Every one knows his place in society and what is "proper" for them to say or do. <br />
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The Berbers are still mainly settled farmers, with significant minorities of nomads and city dwellers. The old common law ('Ada, Kanoun) is transmitted orally from generation to generation and is still widely used. <br />
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The tribe is based on blood ties to a common ancestor who is seen as a supernatural protector and mediator and whose tomb serves as a pilgrimage centre. All members of a tribe call themselves "Bani 'Amm" (cousins). The smallest unit in the tribe is the "hearth" (household - the extended family living under the authority of the eldest male). A number of hearths form a clan (Firqah), which is fairly autonomous in running its own affairs. The tribe is composed of several clans. <br />
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Blood relationship is the basis of all social life. It involves people in its widening circles of family, extended family, clan and tribe, each circle having definite obligations. This attitude is best summed up by the Middle Eastern proverb: "Myself against my brothers, my brothers and myself against my cousins, my cousins and my brothers and myself against the world". Each person is expected to have a deep loyalty to his community and its moral code. <br />
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Marriages to cousins on the father's side are preferred. The married son continues to live with his father, the daughter when married moves in with her husband's family. If divorced or widowed the woman returns to her father's home. Three to four generations may live together in an extended family that can number as many as fifty people.<br />
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Berber women enjoy more freedom than that common among Arab women. They are not veiled, they can chose to divorce and they retain their dowry.<br />
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Communal duties include building and owning granaries. The community is also obliged to protect each individual's guests. <br />
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Settled farmers build one storey stone houses in their villages. The semi-nomads construct their houses and granaries of pounded earth and live in tents made of goats hair when at pasture. Home industries such as pottery, basket making and weaving are performed by the women.<br />
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In Berber villages the meeting of all adult males (Jama'ah) in the village square is the ultimate political power centre. The Jama'a elects a village head for a limited term, though in practice some wealthy heads of family wield much of the power. The nomads elect a permanent chief and council, the semi-nomadic tribes a seasonal chief who oversees the migrations. <br />
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The Sharifs, who claim descent from Muhammad, still form the highest caste in the villages. The Marabouts, heads of the Sufi brotherhoods, are also much respected and some are venerated as saints.<br />
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In conservative families, female influence is thought to be detrimental to a boy, and he is removed from his mother's sphere at the age of six or seven, when he is placed under the supervision of a male relative who takes over his education. He is taught to obey and respect his parents and the many customs and traditions that are still absolutely binding.<br />
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Berber architecture and crafts show the combined influence of the Middle East and of Muslim Spain. For decoration Berbers use a simple composition with alternating decorated and coloured stripes.<br />
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Festivals (Moussems) are an important feature of Berber life usually held towards the end of summer. They are an occasion for a great gathering of the tribes and clans, usually held at the tomb of a well known saint. Trade, fairs, sacrifices, ceremonies and marriage arrangements are all part of the fun.<br />
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Despite the emergence of new classes in the cities and the effects of modernisation the old values continue to have a strong hold on society. Solidarity among male relatives is a must, even when they no longer live near each other. It is an obligation to help all relatives in need. Girls are married off as soon as possible as celibacy is considered a shame. Large families are still favoured and marriages are commonly arranged by parents who prefer relatives to strangers. <br />
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In both government and economy, a parallel chain of command comprising informal family and tribal ties is often the real power broker. <br />
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LANGUAGE<br />
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The Berber dialects belong to the Hamitic subfamily of the Hamito-Semitic language group. They include: in Morocco, Shilha (Tashilhait) spoken by the Shluh, Tamazight by the Berrabers and Tarifit (Zenatiyeh) spoken by the Rif. In Algeria, Kabyle (Tamazirt, Zwawah) spoken by the Kabyles, Shawia spoken by the Shawias and Tamashek spoken by the Tuaregs in central Sahara and north of the Niger river. The sound systems of the various dialects are quite different from one another, but vocabulary and grammar are quite similar. <br />
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The Arabic script is used for writing all dialects, except for the Tuareg dialect which still uses an ancient Libyan writing system (Tifinagh). Berber dialects borrowed many words from Arabic and contain some words borrowed from Phoenician and Latin.<br />
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They are spoken languages transmitted orally from generation to generation, as Berber writers wrote in the languages of their conquerors: Punic, Latin, Arabic and French. There are some inscriptions in ancient Libyan, no Berber documents from the early Islamic period, and only a few from the 12th century onward, mainly religious works in Arabic script intended for teaching Islam and for religious edification. Most writing in the Maghreb was done in Arabic. In the 19th century Europeans started collecting texts orally from Berbers and writing them down. Later, translations of the Old and New Testaments were made by Catholic and Protestant missionaries.<br />
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Secular works are rare. There are Arabic-Berber dictionaries and books on popular medicine. There are a few compilations of customary Berber law and some adaptations in Berber of Arabic stories.<br />
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Since the eighties, new Berber publications are appearing especially in France, designed to preserve and strengthen the specific Berber heritage.<br />
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Similar to Semitic languages, Berber words are made up of roots inflected according to a schema, the root containing two or three consonants. There are two genders, masculine and feminine, and two numbers, single and plural.<br />
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The vocabulary is quite large and includes many Arabic loan words for religious and intellectual terms.<br />
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Berber folklore is rich and has been transmitted mainly orally. There are many proverbs, fables, humorous tales, animal stories, religious and historical legends. Berbers are also fond of riddles and of songs and poems about love and war that are recited at festivals and gatherings.<br />
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EVANGELISM<br />
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In Roman times the Maghreb was a main centre of Christianity with over 500 Bishoprics and great Church leaders. It is the only region in addition to the Arabian Peninsula in which Islam succeeded in completely wiping out established Christianity - this was done gradually over a long period of time and was completed by the Berber Empires of the 12th century.<br />
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In 1307 Raymond Lull, a Franciscan monk, brought the Christian message back to the Maghreb. He worked first in Tunisia for 23 years and later in Algeria. A few Muslims were converted by his efforts, but he was stoned to death at Bougie in 1314.<br />
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French Catholic missionaries had a limited work from 1646 onwards. In the 19th century Archbishop Lavigerie started a society of White Fathers and White Sisters (1867). They adapted to Arab and Berber dress and culture and opened schools and orphanages.<br />
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Protestant work in the Maghreb started in the 1830s by the Basle mission, the French Reformed, and the Lutherans, but it was centred on the expatriates.<br />
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Christian Brethren started work in 1880 and the North Africa Mission in 1881. They did medical work amongst the Berbers and translated the Bible into Kabyle. Lilias Trotter and her co-workers were active around the turn of the century in Algiers and also did some visitation in Berber villages.<br />
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Charles and Pearl Marsh were Brethren missionaries active for several decades amongst the Kabyles (up to 1962). They established a clinic and visited remote Kabyle villages on a regular basis. Knowing the local language they won the respect and confidence of the people. Many heard the Gospel through their efforts and some were converted. The struggle for independence impeded their work from 1954 onwards and they left for the Chad in 1962.<br />
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Early believers faced severe persecution and many were ostracised, some poisoned and others killed.<br />
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Following independence, open evangelistic work was restricted and eventually became almost impossible in all Maghreb countries. Opposition to the Gospel is very strong amongst the fanatical Muslim leadership and influences government agencies and legistlation. It is illegal to proselytise Muslims and police harassment and constant supervision make life difficult for Christian workers. Missionary visas are difficult to obtain, and workers are deported on any pretext. Tentmaking and tourism are the best ways of getting into the Maghreb states and offer many opportunities for friendship evangelism.<br />
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Bible correspondence courses are run by various agencies from outside the area. Radio broadcasts in Kabyle are being beamed from Monte Carlo. Some missions continue with medical and social work. Cassettes and videos in various Berber dialects are being increasingly produced and distributed to good effect.<br />
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Many Berbers hear the Gospel in France and other European countries, where small groups of Berber believers are now established. They will play an increasingly important role in the evangelisation of the Maghreb.<br />
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For the discerning worker there are open doors. There is a growing turning to Christ amongst Berbers with individual believers scattered here and there in the vast region and small fellowships developing. This is evident especially amongst the Kabyles of Algeria. Certainly this is the time to intensify the preparation of the soil and the extent of the seed sowing whilst reaping a small harvest that in God's time will swell into a great tide of souls.<br />
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For the foreign worker called to the Maghreb, adaptation to local culture and language, the ability to make friends and respect for the people of the land are key factors. Prayer for the shaking of the principalities binding the population of the Maghreb must be coupled with a growing number of personal encounters with true believers and the liberating power of Christ. Hidden key concepts, inherent in Berber customs and Sufi lore must be more powerfully used to show forth the excellency of Jesus, the Messiah, as the only effective sacrifice, saviour, mediator, healer, protector from evil powers, bestower of real grace, etc. The targeting of specific communities may reveal powerful keys inherent in their particular tradition.</div>
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-20054598164841143642011-03-04T23:16:00.000-05:002015-12-19T00:28:59.857-05:00Berber culture: The Hidden mediterranean Culture<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLS6rosw4-8btpp82YajrfAdCcfE9DbM9aeuX10HaoNp-ObinFkrcjtWMJ7G_uORa8iGsSj09gZrxu2YcOZvauyS7U7dLcNtIByttLwUMkTEqSqHV6twF4S2Zpp0lU-z8UnMrd7ZObeFFE/s1600/yougarta.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLS6rosw4-8btpp82YajrfAdCcfE9DbM9aeuX10HaoNp-ObinFkrcjtWMJ7G_uORa8iGsSj09gZrxu2YcOZvauyS7U7dLcNtIByttLwUMkTEqSqHV6twF4S2Zpp0lU-z8UnMrd7ZObeFFE/s1600/yougarta.jpg" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikRvmE1bP8HT9F5rQRbhH4SovMaoV59tWnWBjb7APZ7dM3gzJnceDBryvKbaDsRxskoeWXOkbBIYS6zEGLDHKZSjD63lAehEhvdoEZN8lO-JodH05Qtap6tNFpVgiYBHEForgCWT4cg9p_/s1600/abdelkrim.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikRvmE1bP8HT9F5rQRbhH4SovMaoV59tWnWBjb7APZ7dM3gzJnceDBryvKbaDsRxskoeWXOkbBIYS6zEGLDHKZSjD63lAehEhvdoEZN8lO-JodH05Qtap6tNFpVgiYBHEForgCWT4cg9p_/s1600/abdelkrim.jpg" /></a><strong><span class="style59"></span></strong><strong><span style="color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;">Who are the Berbers</span>?</span> </strong><br />
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Since time immemorial, North Africa has been inhabited by the indigenous people known as <em>Imazighen*</em>. These Berber populations, across northern Africa, have known a series of invasions and occupations that date back thousands of years, including those of the Phoenicians, the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantines, the Arabs, the Spanish, the Turks and the French. Despite ceaseless efforts by each colonizer to erase and eradicate this indigenous culture, the latter not only survived but also constitutes the foundation onto which the other cultural layers were added. In addition, North Africa has also benefited from centuries-long contact with the Andalusian culture in the north and the sub-Saharan civilizations in the south. The Berber culture stretches from Egypt’s Siwa oasis in the east to the Canary Islands in the West, and from the Mediterranean shores in the north to the desert plains of the Sahara. The Berbers, whose total population is estimated at 25 million, are principally concentrated in Morocco and Algeria, with significant communities also living today in Tunisia, Libya and Mauritania (see appended map, page 21). Their language (usually referred to as <em>Tamazight</em>) is composed of a number of varieties, all of which are derived from the Afro-asiatic linguistic family. Berber groups inhabiting coastal North Africa today identify themselves by the terms Kabyles, Riffis or Chenwas. Others, living further inland are known as Chawis, Siwis, Chleuhs, Mozabites and Tuaregs (in the Sahara Desert). Many Berbers today are Muslim (essentially Sunnis belonging to the Maliki <em>madhhab</em>). Prior to conversion to Islam in the 8th century the Berbers had polytheistic and animistic religious practices. <strong></strong><br />
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World-renowned Berber authors from antiquity to our modern times, namely Saint Augustine, Tertullian, Apuleius, Arnobius, Franto, Saint Cyprian, Lactantius, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Battuta, Jean Amrouche, Kateb Yacine, Mouloud Mammeri, among others, have contributed immensely to world culture, but they are often inaccurately labeled in anthologies and history books as Roman, Arab, or French, depending on the period and the language they have used. In addition, until very recently, the Berber language (with its many dialects across North Africa) was not recognized as a national or official language in any of the countries where it was spoken and was not even allowed to be taught in schools. However, in both Morocco and Algeria the cultural status and historical importance of Berbers is now gradually being recognized by the governments of those countries.<br />
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Why are Berber studies important?</strong><br />
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Despite the recent emergence of Berber studies in North Africa and Europe as an important field of research and scholarship, academic focus on the Berber world is virtually absent in North America. No teaching or research programs devoted to Berber studies exist in any North American university today. For a number of years the University of California at Los Angeles offered a small-scale Berber studies program which was dependent on a single faculty member. However, since the retirement of Professor Tom Poncheon at UCLA, the only comprehensive teaching program in the United States devoted to the Berber world has vanished. Today, university courses focusing on Berber culture are few and far between, usually operating with marginal validation under the umbrella of either Middle Eastern Studies or Africana Studies departments. Given this dire situation, Oregon State University is committed to improving the presence of Berber studies in US institutions of higher education. <br />
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The paucity of teaching and research emphasis in the field of Berber Studies in the United States has, in part, contributed to current misunderstandings about the cultural personality of the entire North African region. Often confused with the Middle East and sometimes not well defined geographically, North Africa largely remains ignored and misunderstood, even among academics. Often categorized as the occidental fringe of the Arab world (the Maghreb), North Africa is rarely perceived from the vista of its Berber foundation. This foundation has profound genetic and biological roots: 60% of Moroccans are of Berber origin, as are 20% of Algerians. Many of North Africa’s Berbers do not primarily identify with Muslim civilization, nor are they necessarily drawn in any indigenous or even utilitarian way to Islam and Arabic, any more than they were to Catholicism and French. Often steering a course that avoided the dangerous waters of nationalism, and always accepting the cloak of multiple identities, Berber culture has been an ever prudent chameleon. In many ways it is because of this tenacity and modesty that it has simultaneously survived the torments of history and that it has not, heretofore, found its way into the university curriculum and into the mainstream of Western scholarship. In very practical terms, this means that an entire stratum of the Arab world (and specifically of the North African or Maghrebi world), remains on the educational sidelines. There is a need, therefore, to expand opportunities for teachers and researchers to gain a comprehension of the complexities of Berber North Africa. Berber culture is a well-worn, but necessary, key to both the understanding of the ancient Mediterranean basin and to the interpretation of the current dynamics of the Muslim sphere. It seems, particularly at this point in time, important to identify the cultural specificity of the Berber communities in Africa, and to disclose the potential importance of these communities in the dialog between Western and Mediterranean worlds.<br />
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For these reasons, it would be timely to give full consideration to the history and culture of Berber civilization, to trace its path from the earliest archeological evidence to its modern living form in the 21st century. A cultural exploration of Berber North Africa should include not only an understanding of its historical itinerary but also its contemporary nature revealed through cultural expressions such as literature, the plastic arts, crafts and music.<br />
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An NEH Summer Institute would constitute a first-time occasion for college and university teachers in the United States to be given the opportunity to consider the multiple dimensions of Berber North Africa. We propose to hold a four-week Institute at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon, that will convene 24 college and university teachers from a range of disciplines seeking to situate Berber studies in their undergraduate or graduate coursework. The Institute will draw on the expertise of some of the leading scholars in the area of Berber studies.<br />
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The foremost practical goal of this project is to expose scholars and college faculty to the hidden face of this Berber world. This exposure should be particularly germane to those scholars conducting research in the field in North Africa and to teachers seeking to integrate Berber culture into their curriculum. For this reason, it is anticipated that prospective applicants will have ethnology-related backgrounds in the following academic fields: art history, Islamic studies, anthropology, human geography, Mediterranean cultural history, French and Francophone studies, linguistics, religious studies, music, and film studies.</div>
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<em>*Imazighen</em><br />
<a href="http://oregonstate.edu/nehberber/rationale.html#_ftnref1" id="_ftn1" name="_ftn1" title=""></a>The original name of the Berber people, meaning free men. Some activists prefer this name, as the word “Berber” is pejorative. It was derived from the term « barbari » that the Romans gave to the people they conquered.<br />
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<span style="color: #f48d1d;"><a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></span></div>
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amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-83743464722116732632011-03-04T23:07:00.000-05:002011-03-04T23:07:37.133-05:00L HISTOIRE ET CULTURE DES TOUAREGS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="firstHeading"><span class="mw-headline" id="Vie_sociale" style="color: blue;"><strong><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjygmDT-o727OwfM5bERr_0-RZApqoShPMcfotBiucRSJXgX7CMGv8yzNK0DlFN1dMio11gwC6JwljXCK4ZdGxs4fSU-XlVzwwnrKu14tEncMiO6bFMAKQYrQntAo5JuG2n-xapmjcfF8rf/s1600/bijou+touareg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjygmDT-o727OwfM5bERr_0-RZApqoShPMcfotBiucRSJXgX7CMGv8yzNK0DlFN1dMio11gwC6JwljXCK4ZdGxs4fSU-XlVzwwnrKu14tEncMiO6bFMAKQYrQntAo5JuG2n-xapmjcfF8rf/s1600/bijou+touareg.jpg" /></a></div><br />
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<div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMVr-pFA-roiyVUslG6LPTbipDXKXElG22IFLJoDc_-WS9FWqqdnsuuiKotp4EgCkH4wfY1u5qIm86d3kwpTb2-ioxpinPWztBCM7Jj2e2BXITGO5_koidkkLaoVP438C0-wnxVMy_AHT9/s1600/tamazight+flag.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMVr-pFA-roiyVUslG6LPTbipDXKXElG22IFLJoDc_-WS9FWqqdnsuuiKotp4EgCkH4wfY1u5qIm86d3kwpTb2-ioxpinPWztBCM7Jj2e2BXITGO5_koidkkLaoVP438C0-wnxVMy_AHT9/s1600/tamazight+flag.jpg" /></a></div><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading">Touareg</h1>Vie sociale</strong></span></div><div class="firstHeading"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGX57KgMFc7OcfWVTnWPWvX5vI93rQFcIv9-5-zjrWnYCmz_1jbKebLZyJv_S9cb4v5bbLou-xJ8ZxeYpAzjj0FcUyIssszV33YV84ktj1UkXQkqQQuP5zloNi3e_Sk4UsmhYS1Lfw9hm4/s1600/touareg+location.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGX57KgMFc7OcfWVTnWPWvX5vI93rQFcIv9-5-zjrWnYCmz_1jbKebLZyJv_S9cb4v5bbLou-xJ8ZxeYpAzjj0FcUyIssszV33YV84ktj1UkXQkqQQuP5zloNi3e_Sk4UsmhYS1Lfw9hm4/s1600/touareg+location.png" /></a>Si la société touarègue est hiérarchisée, sa structure ne s'apparente pas aux hiérarchies figées occidentales. Chaque classes sociales, articulées selon leurs fonctions sociales spécifiques, se fréquentent et se mêlent au quotidien, unies dans des relations de plaisanterie codée. Il est possible de distinguer certaines de ces catégories sociales :</div><ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg10G9KiKp78ZzFMzVTprIaSHDccO7iASDiO8tfDg61yai-BwGfhWmCYJhyFFPm_e3OHG5euDtXO_fIH0qDIKhj9j5SYm-i18NqWgAr1UrVZvHtwABZ-q2bZySnPU89CZTqrfG38oXvCz9W/s1600/368808460_e522f6f837_s.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="75" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg10G9KiKp78ZzFMzVTprIaSHDccO7iASDiO8tfDg61yai-BwGfhWmCYJhyFFPm_e3OHG5euDtXO_fIH0qDIKhj9j5SYm-i18NqWgAr1UrVZvHtwABZ-q2bZySnPU89CZTqrfG38oXvCz9W/s320/368808460_e522f6f837_s.jpg" width="75" /></a></div><li>Imajaghan : tribus nobles, essentiellement guerriers féroces et redoutés ; </li>
<li>Ineslemen : tribus <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marabout_(islam)" title="Marabout (islam)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">maraboutiques</span></a> (au singulier <i>ineslem</i> signifie « musulman »), nobles aussi; </li>
<li>Imrad : tribus <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal"><span style="color: #0645ad;">vassales</span></a> ; </li>
<li>Inaden : forgerons (en fait les artisans) noirs ; </li>
<li>Irawellan : anciens captifs touareg ; </li>
<li>Iklan : esclaves noirs (au singulier <i>akli</i> signifie « noir ») ; </li>
<li>Bellas : esclaves libérés de langue <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songha%C3%AF" title="Songhaï"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Songhaï</span></a> ; </li>
<li>Bouzou : esclaves libérés de langue <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haoussa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">haoussa</span></a>. </li>
</ul> Les Touareg sont <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monogamie" title="Monogamie"><span style="color: #0645ad;">monogames</span></a>, sauf quelques exceptions. Le futur marié doit apporter une dot composée de terres , de boeufs et de dromadaires. La tente et son ameublement est fournie au couple par la famille de la mariée, cette dernière en gardera la propriété en cas de divorce. L' ex-mari sera donc sans toit. Les mariés appartiennent presque toujours à la même caste<sup style="cursor: help; padding-left: 2px;" title="Ce passage nécessite une référence."><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_n%C3%A9cessaire" title="Aide:Référence nécessaire"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[réf. nécessaire]</span></a></sup>.<br />
Les Touareg portent traditionnellement une sorte de long vêtement souvent nommé [takakat] (en étoffe de coton nommé « bazin ») et un <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A8che"><span style="color: #0645ad;">chèche</span></a>, appelé aussi <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taguelmoust" title="Taguelmoust"><span style="color: #0645ad;">taguelmoust</span></a> (<i>tagelmust</i> en berbère) ou encore « turban ». Le chèche est une sorte de turban d’environ quatre-cinq mètres de long qui s’enroule sur la tête pour se protéger du soleil, du vent, de la pluie, du sable, du froid… Traditionnellement, l’homme ne quitte jamais son turban. Il peut être de différentes couleurs, telles que rouge, jaune, vert, mais deux couleurs ont une signification spéciale. Le blanc est porté pour montrer un signe de respect, un jour particulier. Le chèche indigo est fait à partir de <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lin_cultiv%C3%A9" title="Lin cultivé"><span style="color: #0645ad;">lin</span></a>, souvent avec un tissage complexe. Il est porté les jours de fête (et les jours de froid car il est plus chaud que le chèche en coton). Sa teinture tend à déteindre sur la peau, donnant au targui le surnom d’« homme bleu ».<br />
<span class="mw-headline" id="Culture">Culture</span><br />
<span class="mw-headline"> </span><br />
L’origine exacte des Touareg est berbère, ils sont vraisemblablement descendants des tribus des premiers habitants de l'<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrique_du_Nord"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Afrique du Nord</span></a>.<br />
Leur culture berbère est confirmée par l'usage du même alphabet, du <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tifinagh"><span style="color: #0645ad;">tifinagh</span></a>, et de la même base linguistique le tamasheq.<br />
Le cérémonial du <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9"><span style="color: #0645ad;">thé</span></a> est une manière de montrer l’hospitalité et un prétexte pour discuter avec le visiteur de passage. Le thé a été introduit au début du <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/XXe_si%C3%A8cle" title="XXe siècle"><span style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="romain">XX</span><sup>e</sup> siècle</span></a> au travers de l’influence arabo-musulmane. Refuser un thé ou de ne pas boire les trois thés est jugé impoli. En effet les mêmes feuilles de thé vert sont utilisées pour confectionner trois services à la suite ; «Le premier thé est amer comme la vie, le second est fort comme l'amour et le dernier est doux comme la mort».<br />
Le plat de base des touaregs est la <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taguella"><span style="color: #0645ad;">taguella</span></a>.<br />
Chaque année, en janvier, a lieu le <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival_du_d%C3%A9sert" title="Festival du désert"><span style="color: #0645ad;">festival du désert</span></a> à Essakane, près de <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombouctou"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tombouctou</span></a> au <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mali</span></a>, ainsi que celui d’<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essouk"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Essouk</span></a>, près de <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidal"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Kidal</span></a>. Plusieurs autres festivals ont lieu à travers le pays Touareg, manifestations qui offrent une vraie occasion pour découvrir la culture touareg : la cure salée à In-Gall, près d’<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agadez"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Agadez</span></a>. Les fêtes traditionnelles de <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%AAte_de_la_Gani" title="Fête de la Gani"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Gani</span></a> et <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bianou"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Bianou</span></a> à Agadez.<br />
Depuis les années 1990 la musique touareg s’est enrichie d’un nouveau courant : le <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues_touareg"><span style="color: #0645ad;">blues touareg</span></a> avec notamment le groupe <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinariwen"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tinariwen</span></a> ou bien Toumast. Les festivals de tourisme de Ghat et Ghadames en <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libye"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Libye</span></a>. La fête de Sabiba à <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djanet"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Djanet</span></a> en Algérie<br />
<strong><span style="color: blue;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Histoire">Histoire</span></span></strong><br />
<span class="mw-headline"> </span><br />
Jusqu’aux années <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900"><span style="color: #0645ad;">1900</span></a>, le monde touareg était organisé en confédérations ayant chacune sont propre <i>ettabel</i> (tambour) symbole de la <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chefferie"><span style="color: #0645ad;">chefferie</span></a> et un <i><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenokal"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Amenokal</span></a></i> (pluriel <i>Imenokalan</i>), chef traditionnel élu par les sages à l’issue des palabres.<br />
Les principaux groupes confédérés sont :<br />
<ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikg_O4kX3Ca2HrlHlCHfaP86q8SB8siEtemZWtSsTyxEE04cYZut3prSjFigey2uPrnr5LC5mOnbFOdvGTK4AWq3uzWwAmxuh_MhM8pFSzQPMOU6CjWJyyk5iwPLZCNMuhBXP59w86Gp5A/s1600/femme+touareg.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="94" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikg_O4kX3Ca2HrlHlCHfaP86q8SB8siEtemZWtSsTyxEE04cYZut3prSjFigey2uPrnr5LC5mOnbFOdvGTK4AWq3uzWwAmxuh_MhM8pFSzQPMOU6CjWJyyk5iwPLZCNMuhBXP59w86Gp5A/s320/femme+touareg.bmp" width="117" /></a></div><li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kel_Ajjer" title="Kel Ajjer"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Kel Ajjer</span></a> dans la région du <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tassili_N%27Ajjer" title="Tassili N'Ajjer"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tassili N'Ajjer</span></a>, entre <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghat_(Libye)" title="Ghat (Libye)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ghat</span></a> et <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djanet"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Djanet</span></a> ; </li>
<li><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kel_Ahaggar"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Kel Ahaggar</span></a>, dans les montagnes du <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoggar" title="Hoggar"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ahaggar</span></a> ; </li>
<li><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouelleminden"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ouelleminden</span></a> Kel Ataram (ceux de l’ouest) avec pour centre [Gao,Kidal et Tin Bouctou] ; </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imididaghane&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Imididaghane (page inexistante)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Imididaghane</span></a> dans la boucle du Niger <a class="new" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabanda,Hawssa&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Arabanda,Hawssa (page inexistante)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Arabanda,Hawssa</span></a>, avec pour centre [ Gao, Tombouctou] ; <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisJHKL-v7Xt2C39w8kUy27nrlFpWAjT-5bMkeTSXabp9uX1kRWSDMhV8hgc5F5h0VUTqMtiDlMX5EFSExLXV13myskpEUPOdXjMUae_Gn7l67JdeWMEs0W3FDuIgOQfwc0OaRiRmNUappi/s1600/tea+with+touaregs.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="82" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisJHKL-v7Xt2C39w8kUy27nrlFpWAjT-5bMkeTSXabp9uX1kRWSDMhV8hgc5F5h0VUTqMtiDlMX5EFSExLXV13myskpEUPOdXjMUae_Gn7l67JdeWMEs0W3FDuIgOQfwc0OaRiRmNUappi/s320/tea+with+touaregs.bmp" width="123" /></a></div></li>
<li><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouelleminden" title="Ouelleminden"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ioullemiden</span></a> Kel Denneg (ceux de l’est, appelés aussi Tagaraygarayt (le centre). Le fief des Kel Denneg se trouve dans la région de <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azawagh"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Azawagh</span></a>, vers <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abalagh"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Abalagh</span></a> , <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tchin-Tabaraden" title="Tchin-Tabaraden"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tchin-Tabaradenet</span></a> <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahoua"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tahoua</span></a> ; </li>
<li><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kel_Gress"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Kel Gress</span></a>, dans le Damergou (Tanut) ; </li>
<li><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kel_A%C3%AFr"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Kel Aïr</span></a>, dans les montagnes de l’<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%AFr" title="Aïr"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Aïr</span></a>, dont les grandes villes sont <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agadez"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Agadez</span></a>, <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timia"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Timia</span></a> et <a class="new" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=If%C3%A9rouane&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Iférouane (page inexistante)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Iférouane</span></a>. </li>
</ul>toua<br />
<u><span style="color: purple;">Quelques Imenokalan regs :</span></u><br />
<ul><li><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Hinan"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tin Hinan</span></a>, ou <i>Tamenokalt</i>, matriarche et reine de Ahaggar ; </li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Koceilatta&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Koceilatta (page inexistante)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Koceilatta</span></a> ,Roi de Tadamakkat au moyenne Age,amenokal des Imididaghanes et des tous les Touregs d Essouk; </li>
<li>Karidanna, premier amenokal et fondateur de la fédération des Ioullemiden ; </li>
<li>Ibrahim ag Abakkada, chef des Azjer ; </li>
<li><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moussa_ag_Amastan"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Moussa ag Amastan</span></a>, amenokal d’Ahaggar ; </li>
<li>El Jilani Ag Khamed Ibrahim, Amenokal et Imam de Tagaraygarayt (Kel Dennig). Début du <span class="romain">XIX</span><sup>e</sup> siècle. </li>
<li>Koceilatta Roi de Tadamakkat au moyenne Age </li>
<li>Makhammad ag Katamay, chef des Iwillimidan Kel Denneg ; </li>
<li>Abdurrahman Tagama, sultan d'Agadez ; </li>
<li>Al Khorer, résistant, chef des Ioullemiden Kel Denneg ; </li>
<li>Fihrun ag Amansar, résistant, chef des Ouelleminden Kel Ataram ; </li>
<li>Warilyess , résistant, chef des Imididaghan kel Gossi; </li>
<li>Guarayane Ag OUbagzane, chef des Imididaghan ke Adagh; </li>
<li>Amud, chef des Kel Ajjer ; </li>
<li>Mohamed Ali ag Attaher, amenokal des Kel Ansar, décédé en exil au Maroc en 1994 ; </li>
<li>Ahna Ag Amouzar, amenokal des Imididaghan de Tessit; </li>
<li>Egarwaye Ag Mataly, amenokal des Imididaghane Hawssa; </li>
<li>Mohamed Elmehdi ag Attaher, actuel Amenokal des Kel Ansar. </li>
<li>Kili Kili Najim actuel Aménokal des Imaghads de l'Azawak; </li>
<li>Khamzata Mouhamed El Khourer, Chef des Kel Nan </li>
<li>Zaïnou Mohamed, Chef des Kel Eghlal </li>
</ul><strong><span style="color: lime;">Tribus touarègues</span></strong> :<br />
<ul><li>Ait Awari (Iberkorayane de Tagaraygarayt , région de l'Azawak, Niger) </li>
<li>Awraghan </li>
</ul>Imididagh (Kel Adagh,Ihadakatane,kel Alkitt, kel Gossi,kel Agheriss, kel Serrere,kel Oulli,Ilokane,imididaghane Tin Bouctou,Ighinaghissane)<br />
<ul><li>Alwalitan ( Tagaraygarayt , région de l'Azawak, Niger) </li>
<li>Ashsharifan (Iberkorayane de Tagaraygarayt , région de l'Azawak, Niger) </li>
<li>Dabbakar ( Tagaraygarayt , région de l'Azawak, Niger) </li>
<li>Itaguane </li>
<li>Daw Sahak (Tagaraygarayt , région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Idnan </li>
<li>Ibarogan </li>
<li>Ifughas </li>
<li>Iherherane (Iwillimidan Kel Dennig, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Igdalan </li>
<li>Igoran (Tagaraygarayt, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Ihaggaran </li>
<li>Ijawanjawatan (Tagaraygarayt, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Ikanawan (Tagaraygarayt, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Ikazkazan </li>
<li>Ilabakkan (Iwillimidan Kel Dennig, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Imalhaya (Tagaraygarayt, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Imanghasatan </li>
<li>Imannan </li>
<li>Imaqqarghasan </li>
<li>Ikanawan (Tagaraygarayt , région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Irawalan (Iwillimidan Kel Dennig, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Ihadanharan </li>
<li>Izawitan (Tagaraygarayt, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Illisawan </li>
<li>Kel Aghlal (Iberkorayane de Tagaraygarayt , région de l'Azawak, Niger) </li>
<li>Kel Assuk </li>
<li>Kel Away </li>
<li>Kel Faday </li>
<li>Kel Ferwan </li>
<li>Kel Ghala </li>
<li>Kel Ansar </li>
<li>Kel Nan (Iwillimidan Kel Dennig, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Kel Tadaley </li>
<li>Kel Tafidat </li>
<li>Kel Takriza </li>
<li>Kel Tin Alkum </li>
<li>Kel Ghat </li>
<li>Taitoq </li>
<li>Teggermet (Iwillimidan Kel Dennig, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Tellem Edes (Iwillimidan Kel Dennig, région de l'Azawak) </li>
<li>Udalan </li>
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<a href="http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/">http://www.morocco70.blogspot.com/</a></div>amazighihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00769994346772480922noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-832784104857989904.post-58016589966246481142011-03-04T22:58:00.001-05:002015-12-18T16:35:22.102-05:00Tifinagh : l'alphabet berbère de A à Z<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJ4_oEiaN1B9fiDzIi2cDlhpzv3c769C3jF_N-hBxovbQl1LSbWbqJtaAWeM1DBf_dvSqZHVPZNAH-sve3YsFoQj8xq2qytlK_Ln-_HXFVIOLeoJ4rOAcIPgGSF2DoRQhlIKXIzQcnqGDh/s1600/maroc+sasn+complexes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJ4_oEiaN1B9fiDzIi2cDlhpzv3c769C3jF_N-hBxovbQl1LSbWbqJtaAWeM1DBf_dvSqZHVPZNAH-sve3YsFoQj8xq2qytlK_Ln-_HXFVIOLeoJ4rOAcIPgGSF2DoRQhlIKXIzQcnqGDh/s1600/maroc+sasn+complexes.jpg" /></a><b><u><b><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Rachid RIDOUANE ZIRI</span> </b></u></b><br />
La langue berbère est, avec la langue éthiopienne, qui comme elle appartient au groupe chamito-sémitique, la seule langue à posséder une écriture autonome. L'écriture libyenne s'est maintenue jusqu'à nos jours chez les Touaregs, ils nomment Tifinagh ces mêmes caractères qui ont subi d'inévitables variations. <span style="font-size: xx-small;">(Gabriel Camps 1980 : 275)</span><br />
La langue amazighe possède en effet un alphabet depuis l'antiquité. C'est dans cet alphabet que sont rédigés les textes qu'on appelle les inscriptions libyques. Il s'agit d'un alphabet strictement consonantique. Les voyelles n'ont été notées que peut-être secondairement à l'aide des signes consonantiques. Les inscriptions libyques ont été utilisées sur toute l'Afrique du Nord, en Tunisie, au Maroc, en Algérie et même aux Iles Canaries. Elles sont particulièrement nombreuses à l'Est, en Tunisie et dans le département de Constantine. Celles qui sont actuellement connues dépassent le chiffre de 1120 inscriptions, dont la plupart sont des inscriptions funéraires.<br />
<br />
Dans ce qui suit, nous essayerons d'exposer les résultats obtenus par les chercheurs ayant analysé les points suivants :<br />
<br />
* L'origine de cet alphabet ;<br />
* La date de son apparition ;<br />
* Le déchiffrement ;<br />
* Les différentes écritures amazighes (prochainement)<br />
<br />
Une attention particulière sera apportée à l'analyse des néo-tifinagh. La désignation "néo-tifinagh" englobe aussi bien le système d'écriture développé par l'Académie Berbère sur la base des tifinagh touarègues à la fin des années 60 que les quelques autres systèmes d'écriture venus développer ou pour certains corriger les quelques imperfections du système de l'Académie Berbère. Nous avons effectué une analyse plus détaillée de ses différents alphabets, l'objectif est de mettre à votre disposition une vue globale de ces systèmes (grâce notamment à un tableau les récapitulant) et de souligner les possibilités de dégager un système standard utilisable pour tous les parlers amazighs. Pour finir, nous allons présenter les règles de lecture et d'écriture en tifinagh les plus adoptées par les différents acteurs du mouvement amazigh.<br />
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Une bibliographie est mise à votre disoposition pour en savoir plus sur l'alphabet amazigh.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.atlas-arganoil.blogspot.com/"><span style="color: #2198a6;">http://www.atlas-arganoil.blogspot.com/</span></a><br />
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Un alphabet berbère méconnu<br />
<b><u>Quelle est l'origine de cet alphabet ?</u></b><br />
La question des origines est décidément soulevée à chaque fois qu'il s'agit des Amazighs. On s'est d'abord interrogé sur l'origine du peuple. Cela a ouvert le champ à certaines hypothèses invraisemblables, initiées surtout pour des fins idéologiques. L'alphabet tifinagh n'a pas échappé à cette question récurrente. Plusieurs hypothèses ont été avancées.<br />
<br />
Les ancêtres des Berbères, les Libyens, mot qui vient de "Libou" par lequel les Egyptiens les désignaient, disposaient d'un alphabet à un moment où la plupart des autres peuples n'en avaient pas ou n'utilisaient que des systèmes hiéroglyphiques ou au plus syllabiques. La question a donc été soulevée pour savoir d'où leur vient cet alphabet. Certains seraient tentés de voir dans cette interrogation une manière implicite de sous-entendre que rien ou presque n'est typiquement amazigh ou d'Afrique du Nord. Et s'il s'agit tout simplement d'une invention berbère ? Les Amazighs, surtout au Maroc, certainement excédés par cette recherche éternelle d'une origine extérieure à tout ce qui se rapporte au domaine berbère, ont développé une version fréquemment citée pour consacrer l'origine autochtone de cet alphabet. Pour eux, Tifinagh est un mot composé de "Tifi" qui signifie trouvaille ou découverte et de l'adjectif possessif "nnagh" qui signifie notre. Tifinagh voudrait donc dire notre trouvaille ou notre découverte. Cette interprétation simpliste et très probablement éronnée ne tient pas compte des variations régionales et de l'évolution de la langue amazighe ; le berbère d'il y'a plus de 2500 ans n'est certainement plus le même que le chleuh ou le kabyle parlés actuellement. Ci-après, nous exposons les hypothèses les pus fréquemment soulevées.<br />
Origine inconnue ?<br />
<br />
Cité par Prasse (1972), M. Cohen (La grande invention de l'écriture et son évolution (1958)), conclut que l'origine de l'alphabet tifinagh reste inconnue. Selon lui, toutes les tentatives de le dériver des hiéroglyphes égyptiens, des alphabets sudarabique, grec, ibérique, voire phénicien-punique, n'ont pas réussi à fournir la preuve décisive.<br />
Origine phénicienne ?<br />
<br />
Selon Hanoteau, le nom même de l'alphabet amazigh trahit son origine phénicienne. Tifinagh est un nom féminin pluriel dont le singulier serait tafniqt : la phénicienne.<br />
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Cette hypothèse est largement partagée par les berbérisants. Ainsi, pour Salem Chaker (1984), "L'alphabet Tifinagh est très certainement d'origine phénicienne, comme la quasi totalité des systèmes alphabétiques existants." Plusieurs raisons ont poussé S. Chaker à considérer que l'alphabet tifinagh est d'origine punique :<br />
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- Le nom tifinagh : ce mot vient de la racine /fnq/ qui désigne les phéniciens en sémitique. L'alternance q / gh [1] est une alternance morphologique très fortement attestée en berbère, le cas de la construction de l'intensif en est l'exemple : negh --- neqqa "tuer".<br />
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- L'usage de tifinagh s'est surtout développé dans les régions d'Afrique du Nord qui ont connu une influence punique.<br />
<br />
- L'orientation originelle est abandonnée au profit d'une pratique épigraphique punique (i.e. horizontal de droite à gauche remplace l'usage courant i.e. vertical)<br />
<br />
- Il n'existe aucune tradition pré-alphabétique qui permettrait d'envisager sérieusement l'hypothèse d'une formation autochtone.<br />
Origine autochtone influencée par le punique ?<br />
<br />
Ch. Higounet (1986) estime que les Amazighs n'auraient emprunté aux Carthaginois que le principe de l'écriture alphabétique : quant aux caractères, certains auraient été empruntés d'autres puisés dans un fonds local des signes symboliques.<br />
Origine autochtone ?<br />
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Plusieurs chercheurs cependant contestent l'origine phénicienne. (St Gsell (1956), J. G. Février (1956), Friedrich (1966)). L'hypothèse punique bute en effet sur plusieurs objections. D'une part, selon Gsell (1956), il est fort probable que les "Phéniciens" ne se soient pas donnés eux-mêmes le nom de "Phéniciens", par lequel les Grecs les désignaient. L'exemple des Amazighs désignés par un autre nom par les Romains - Barbarus d'où est dérivé le mot "berbère" - soutient cette analyse. La deuxième objection émane de la comparaison entre les deux alphabets et qui montre très peu de ressemblance entre le tifinagh et le phénicien. C'est notamment l'absence de notation de voyelles initiales en berbère, le très peu de lettres identiques (6 lettres) et les différentes dispositions des deux écritures (horizontalement et de droite à gauche pour le punique et verticalement et de bas en haut pour le tifinagh) qui ont conduit à douter de cette origine.<br />
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Selon St. Gsell (cité par Khettouch 1996 : 58) "Des figures élémentaires semblables aux lettres de l'alphabet libyque apparaissent déjà, mélangées à des animaux, sur des gravures rupestres relevées un peu partout en Afrique du Nord et antérieures au premier millénaire avant J.C." Selon le même auteur, ces écritures pourraient être le résultat de l'évolution d'un système pictographique où des images seraient devenues des signes phonétiques. La date de l'apparition de ces figures exclut le lien entre le libyque et le punique. Même constat pour Gabriel Camps (1968 - pp 47 : 60) : le libyque est anté-punique et rien ne prouve que son alphabet a été importé. J. Friedrich (1966), de son côte, soutient que l'alphabet berbère est une soeur de l'alphabet sémitique plutôt qu'un descendant emprunté.<br />
Quelle conclusion ?<br />
<br />
Faute de preuves inéluctables, nous ne pouvons soutenir une hypothèse au profit d'une autre. Il est évident que le sentiment identitaire nous pousserait à adopter et défendre l'origine autochtone. Mais la rigueur scientifique et la raison nous obligent à attendre d'autres travaux sur l'alphabet amazigh pour trancher cette question. Le libyque est un domaine très peu investi, un champ d'investigation très large où beaucoup de recherches spécialisées restent à faire. Seule conclusion incontestable : les Amazighs disposaient d'un système d'écriture à une époque où plusieurs cultures en étaient encore au stade pré-historique.<br />
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<b>La date de l'apparition de Tifinagh</b></div>
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Là aussi, quelques hypothèses cohabitent en attendant d'autres travaux. La seule certitude nous vient d'une inscription qui porte une date : celle du temple du roi amazigh Massinissa qui attribue la construction du temple à l'an 10 du règne de ce roi ; c.-à-d. 139 ans avant notre ère. Pour certains, les transcriptions libyco-berbères commencent à apparaître vers 150 ans avant notre ère et s'étend sur une période de quelques 600 à 700 ans. Mais cette date bute sur une objection de taille. Etant devant un alphabet déjà perfectionné - celui du temple de Massinissa - il est tout à fait normal de supposer une certaine période de développement qui ne peut être atteint en 11 ans. Camps (1978) remonte la date de l'apparition de Tifinagh au moins jusqu'au VI siècle avant J.C.<br />
L'évolution de Tifinagh<br />
<br />
* Officialisation chez les rois Massinissa et Micipsa pendant leurs règnes ;<br />
* Usage maintenu jusqu'à la période romaine (mentionné chez les auteurs latins tardifs : Fulgence le mythographe, Corippus, etc.)<br />
* Disparition de l'Afrique septentrional à l'arrivée des Arabes. Aucun texte arabe n'a mentionné cette écriture.<br />
* Son maintien chez les Touarègues jusqu'à nos jours ;<br />
* Sa renaissance au début des années 70 chez les Berbères d'Afrique du Nord (surtout d'Algérie et du Maroc</div>
<div align="center">
<b>Le déchiffrement de l'alphabet Tifinagh</b></div>
Toutes les inscriptions connues, au nombre de 1125, sont réunies dans un corpus dû à Chabot (1940). Beaucoup ont été découvertes à la suite des recherches de M. Rodary (v. Chaker 1984) Les plus importantes sont les inscriptions monumentales de Dougga en Tunisie qui contenaient beaucoup de noms propres et de titres.<br />
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L'alphabet tifinagh renferme des informations précieuses sur l'état de la langue berbère d'il y a plus de 2000 ans. Pourtant, malgré des dizaines d'années de recherches beaucoup de ces inscriptions demeurent pour l'essentiel indéchiffrées. Pourquoi ? D'après Salem Chaker (1984 ; 246-258), plusieurs raisons ont en effet empêché les chercheurs à aboutir à un déchiffrement complet des inscriptions libyco-berbères. Certaines de ces raisons sont liées à la nature même de l'alphabet, d'autres sont plutôt d'ordre géographique et linguistique. Nous en reproduisons quelques unes ci-dessous :<br />
<br />
* La rareté des travaux sur cet alphabet (deux travaux essentiels Chabot 1940 et L. Galand 1966)<br />
* L'alphabet libyco-berbère ne notait pas les voyelles.<br />
* La distance énorme entre le libyco-berbère et la langue berbère d'aujourd'hui (deux millénaires)<br />
* le lexique berbère est mal connu par les chercheurs.<br />
* Les recherches sont en grande partie menées par des chercheurs non berbérisants. En effet, pour aboutir à des résultats satisfaisants, la collaboration d'équipes pluri-disciplinaires est essentielle : berbérisants, archéologues, sémitisants, spécialiste de l'épigraphie latine et punique, historien et protohistoriens…<br />
<br />
Malgré ces difficultés, plusieurs recherches ont abouti à des déchiffrements qui nous renseignent sur l'état de la langue amazighe d'il y'a 2000 ans.<br />
La parenté libyque-berbère<br />
<br />
La question principale à laquelle les chercheurs ont essayé de répondre en déchiffrant l'alphabet amazigh est la suivante : Y a-t-il une parenté entre le libyque parlé il y a plus de deux milles ans et le berbère d'aujourd'hui ? La question de la parenté libyque-berbère a suscité beaucoup de débat. Etant devant un alphabet difficilement déchiffrable, certains en ont conclut que la langue dans laquelle sont écrites ces inscriptions a totalement disparu et contestent donc toute parenté entre le libyque et le berbère. Mais, citant Gabriel Camps (1980 - 276) :" Si le libyque n'est pas une forme ancienne du berbère, on ne voit pas quand et comment le berbère se serait constitué ". Au delà de cet "argument négatif ", on peut prendre à témoin pour établir la parenté du libyque et du berbère "toutes les données historiques : la toponymie, l'onomastique, le lexique ainsi que le témoignage des auteurs arabes" (ibid) Pour prouver la parenté libyque-berbère, Marcy (1936) part non plus du punique, ni même du latin, mais du berbère, en prenant comme référence de base les racines bilitères et trilitères du touarègue, le parler amazigh le mieux conservé et le mieux décrit. Il est ainsi parvenu à déchiffrer plusieurs textes libyques et à les traduire intégralement en français.<br />
Les résultats des déchiffrements<br />
<br />
Seule la forme orientale a été déchiffrée grâce notamment à l'existence d'importantes inscriptions bilingues punico-libyques. Ce déchiffrement a permis de déterminer la valeur de 22 signes sur 24. Les résultats dont les chercheurs disposent, aussi maigres soient-ils, suffisent à prouver la parenté libyque-berbère (v. J. G. Février (1956), K. Prasse (1972)). Ce sont les ressemblances dans les mots outils et les morphèmes qui amènent à une telle affirmation. Et parmi elles, les plus importantes pièces sont constituées par la double présence des prépositions n (de) et d (avec, et), un trait inconnu à n'importe quelle autre langue que le berbère et le tchado-chamitique (haoussa), associée de l'existence de w (fils) et wlt (fille).<br />
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<div align="center">
<b><u>Les différents systèmes d'écriture amazighe</u></b></div>
L'alphabet amazighe a subi des modifications et des variations inévitables depuis son origine jusqu'à nos jours. Du libyque jusqu'au néo-tifinagh en passant par le tifinagh saharien et les tifinagh touarègues, nous retraçons ci-dessous les aspects les plus importants de chacune de ces étapes.<br />
Le Libyque<br />
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<br />
Il y a deux formes du libyque, l'oriental et l'occidental ;<br />
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La forme occidentale a été utilisée le long de la côte méditérrannéenne de la Kabylie jusqu'au Maroc et aux Îles Canaries. La forme orientale a été utilisée dans le Constantinois, en Aurès et en Tunisie ;<br />
<br />
Seule la forme orientale a été déchiffrée grâce notamment à l'existence d'importantes inscriptions bilingues punico-libyques. Ce déchiffrement a permis de déterminer la valeur de 22 signes sur 24 ;<br />
<br />
Selon Février (1964-65), la forme occidentale serait plus primitive, la forme orientale étant influencée par l'écriture punique ;<br />
* L'alphabet libyque est strictement consonantique<br />
* La gémination n'était pas notée ;<br />
* La forme occidentale comporte 13 lettres supplémentaires ;<br />
* Les inscriptions sont souvent des dédicaces ou epitaphes. La plupart sont brèves ;<br />
* Le sens de l'écriture n'est pas fixé (mais c'est plus souvent verticalement de bas en haut). Chaque ligne constitue un mot phonétique ou un sens complet ;<br />
* Une minorité de lettres permettaient de déterminer le début de la ligne. Ces lettres sont appelées lettres directrices ou signes directeurs ;<br />
<br />
Une hypothèse a été avancée que certaines lettres seraient secondaires par rapport à d'autres.<br />
<div align="center">
<b><u>Le tifinagh saharien</u></b></div>
Il est aussi appelé libyco-berbère ou touarègue ancien ;<br />
*<br />
Il contient des signes supplémentaires ;<br />
* Un trait vertical pour noter la voyelle finale /a/ ;<br />
* Il est utilisé pour transcrire le tourègue ancien mais ces inscriptions sont incomprises ;<br />
* L'âge des inscriptions les plus récentes est peut-être de quelques 200 ans ;<br />
* Les modalités du passage entre le libyque et le tifinagh saharien sont inconnues. Le tifinagh saharien était-il contemporain des formes libyques ? Doit-on le comaper au libyque accidental ou oriental ? A quelle période correspond l'utilisation de cet alphabet, avant l'arrivée des Arabes, juste après ou longtemps après ? Ces questions demeurent sans réponse pour l'instant.<br />
* La valeur des signes du tifinagh saharien nous est transmise par P. de Foucauld.<br />
<br />
Pour en savoir plus sur le tifinagh saharien, voir Théodore Monod - 1932. L'Adrar Ahnet pp. 135-139. et Maurice<br />
<br />
Reygasse - 1932. Contribution à l'étude des gravures rupestres et inscriptions tifinagh du Sahara central, Cinquantenaire Faculté Lettres Alger pp. 437-534 (cités dans Prasse 72)<br />
Le tifinagh touarègue<br />
<a href="http://yataghene.net/images/tableau1.jpg"><img alt="tableau 1 : cliquer sur le tableau pour agrandir" border="0" src="http://yataghene.net/images/tableau1.jpg" height="341" width="285" /></a><span style="font-size: xx-small;">tableau 1 : cliquer sur le tableau pour agrandir</span><br />
<br />
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<br />
<br />
Il existe au sein du tifinagh touarègue quelques divergences des valeurs des signes qui correspondent aux variations dialectales touarègues. Si d'une région à une autre, la forme et le nombre des signes peuvent changer, les textes restent en général mutuellement intelligibles car la plupart des différences graphiques suivent la logique des variations phonétiques dialectales.<br />
<br />
L'innovation la plus frappante est la ligature à dernière consonnes /t/ ou à première consonne /n/ ;<br />
Comme pour le saharien, le tifinagh touarègue dispose d'un signe /./ pour noter les voyelles finales appelées Tighratin (masc. Tighrit). Pour le Hoggar, le Ghat et Adrar, ce signe ne s'emlpoie que pour la voyelle /a/. Les voyelles /i/ et /u/ sont notées par les signes corresponadant aux /y/ et /w/. Les autres dialectes l'emploient pour toutes les voyelles finales et, selon P. de Foucauld, pour toutes les voyelles initiales sans destinction<br />
Parmi les tribus maraboutiques de la région de Tombouctou, on a relevé l'emploi des diacritiques arabes pour noter les voyelles brèves ;<br />
Usage : A part quelques rares utilisations pour la notation de textes longs, les tifinagh touarègues ont souvent été utilisés pour des inscriptions sur des objets (bijoux, armes, tapis, etc.), pour des déclarations amoureuses et pour des épitaphes. Toute transcription commence par la formule awa näk (c'est moi) + nom + innân (qui a dit).<br />
<br />
Il semblerait qu'un homme sur trois et une femme sur deux l'écrivent sans hésitation. Depuis peu, les tifinagh sont utilisés comme support pédagogique pour la compagne contre l'analphabétisme.<br />
* Les lettres sont épelées de différentes façons suivant les régions :<br />
<br />
- Dans le Ghat : /b/ : yab ; /d/ : yad ; etc.<br />
- Dans l'Ayer et chez les Iwelmaden : /b/ : ab ; /d/ : ad ; etc.<br />
- Dans le Sud : /b/ : abba ; /d/ : adda ; etc.<br />
- Il n'y a pas d'ordre pour énoncer les lettres de l'alphabet. Mais une formule mnémotechnique, citée par Foucauld (1920), contient toutes les lettres ou presque : awa näk, Fadîmata ult ughnis, aghebbir nnit ur itweddis, taggalt nnit märaw iyesân d sedîs : " C'est moi, Fadimata, fille d'Oughnis : sa hanche ne se touche pas, sa dot est de seize chevaux "<br />
<br />
<b>Les Néo-tifinagh</b><br />
<br />
Les néo-tifinagh désignent surtout le système d'écriture développé par l'Académie berbère (AB) sur la base des tifinagh touarègues à la fin des années 60 et largement diffusé au Maroc et en Algérie et surtout en Kabylie. Mais cette terminologie englobe aussi quelques autres systèmes d'écriture venus développer ou pour certains corriger les quelques imperfections du système de l'Académie Berbère. C'est le cas surtout de la proposition faite par S. Chaker (v. Tafsut. 1990 n° 14.) Les autres systèmes sont à quelques différences près identiques au système de l'AB (rapportez-vous au tableau 2. pour constater ces variations)<br />
<br />
Dans ce qui suit nous proposons une étude détaillée de ces différents alphabets, l'objectif est de mettre à votre disposition une vue globale de ces systèmes (grâce notamment à un tableau les récapitulant) et de souligner les possibilités de dégager un système standard utilisable pour tous les parlers amazighs.<br />
<br />
La renaissance de l'alphabet amazigh en Afrique du Nord est incontestablement due au travail énorme accompli par l'AB (Agraw Imazighen). Cette association formée par des jeunes militants amazighs (kabyles en grande partie) installés à Paris a largement diffusé l'alphabet tifinagh en Algérie et au Maroc. Depuis, l'engouement de la jeune génération pour cet héritage très valorisant n'a jamais cessé. Le point fort de l'initiative de l'AB est donc d'avoir fait renaître cet alphabet sur les terres qui l'ont vu naître il y a plus de 2500 ans [4] et de l'avoir largement diffusé ce qui a créé une sorte de standardisation ; le même système a été utilisé pour transcrire aussi bien le chleuh, le kabyle que le rifain. Mais ces avantages indélébiles ne doivent pas masquer les quelques imperfections que contient cette nouvelle version. En effet, comme l'a bien résumé S. Chaker (1994 - 33) : "…, il a manqué aux néo-tifinagh tout le travail de réflexion phonologique" En plus d'un manque d'une réelle base phonologique au travail de l'AB, un autre point mérite d'être souligné. L'AB, confronté aux variations au sein des tifinagh touarègues, au manque de deux voyelles et à la dominance des pointillés, a inventé certains signes qui n'ont aucune base historique (L'élaboration de ces signes est souvent faite en reliant les pointillés) L'AB a ainsi inventé les signes correspondant aux consonnes suivantes /dj/, /tc/, /k/, /R/, /q/, /x/, /w/, etc. Elle a abandonné les ligatures et a commencé à marquer la tension.<br />
<br />
L'aspect principal qui doit être respecté quant à l'adoption d'un système d'écriture est de refléter d'une manière simple le système phonologique d'une langue donnée. Par système phonologique, nous entendons l'ensemble des consonnes et voyelles d'une langue qui ont un statut pertinent pour distinguer entre deux formes. Autrement dit, un système d'écriture pour le français par exemple doit différencier entre les deux consonnes /p/ et /b/ puisque la substitution d'une des ces consonnes par l'autre changerait totalement le sens d'un mot : par ≠ bar. Par contre, cette même langue n'a pas besoin de deux signes pour distinguer entre le /r/ de "Très" qui est une uvulaire sourde et le /r/ de "grave" qui est sonore. L'alphabet n'est pas tenu de refléter cette différence et de surcharger l'inventaire alphabétique de la langue puisque cette différence est conditionnée par le contexte. Il ne s'agit donc pas de deux phonèmes mais plutôt de deux allophones d'un même phonème /R/. Ces réflexions d'ordre phonologique, entre autres, n'ont malheureusement pas été prises en considération par l'AB ce qui a créé un système alphabétique surchargé. Ainsi a-t-il noté les spirantes /t/, /d/, /k/ et /g/ et les affriquées /tch/ et /dj/ qui, pour un système phonologique commun à tous les parlers amazighs, n'ont pas lieu d'être. La spirantisation et l'affrication de certaines consonnes sont des variations régionales (rifain et kabyle, par exemple) souvent conditionnées par le contexte et qui n'ont qu'une pertinence très faible même au sein de ces parlers. Le système alphabétique amazigh peut donc s'en passer sans risque d'incompréhension.<br />
<br />
Comme nous l'avons précisé plus haut, la tradition alphabétique amazighe ne notait pas les voyelles. Elle notait secondairement la voyelle /a/ en fin d'énoncé. Les signes adoptés par les nouveaux systèmes notaient normalement les semi-voyelles /y/ et /w/. D'autres signes ont été inventés pour désigner ces mêmes semi-voyelles. Cette confusion reflète paradoxalement le caractère spécifique des vocoïdes berbères. En berbère, comme c'est le cas en chleuh, mis à part la voyelle /a/, les vocoïdes /I/ et /U/ sont réalisés comme des voyelles /i/ et /u/ s'ils sont syllabiques et comme des semi-voyelles /y/ et /w/ s'ils n'occupent pas le noyau de la syllabe. Ainsi, le vocoïde /I/ est réalisé dans la forme suivante :<br />
<br />
/Ig°na/ > [ig°na] Il a cousu<br />
<br />
comme une voyelle /i/. Mais il se réalise comme une semi-voyelle /y/ dans la même forme précédée d'une voyelle :<br />
<br />
/ma Ig°na/ > [ma yg°na] Qu'est-ce qu'il a cousu ?<br />
<br />
Mais doit-on pour autant ignorer ces deux différentes réalisations contextuelles dans le système graphique amazigh ? Allons-nous simplifier l'alphabet amazigh si nous optons pour les deux mêmes signes pour noter aussi bien les voyelles que les semi-voyelles correspondantes ? À l'évidence, la réponse est négative. D'autres considérations peuvent et doivent être prises en considération. Imaginons la forme suivante avec quatre vocoïdes adjacents " IIUId " (Il a ramené) où le premier et le troisième vocoïde se réalisent comme des semi-voyelles /y/ et /w/ respectivement et le deuxième et le quatrième comme la voyelle /i/. Il serait plus facile pour le lecteur de réaliser la bonne prononciation si nous notons les semi-voyelles avec des signes différents de ceux des voyelles et ainsi avoir la réalisation attestée : "yiwid". Cela rendrait le découpage moins laborieux. S. Chaker (1994 - 34) propose pour noter les voyelles et les semi-voyelles de jouer sur les variantes graphiques libyque/tifinagh. Cette solution nous semble parfaitement adéquate, elle a l'avantage de refléter une certaine ambiguïté inhérente aux vocoïdes berbères et de nous empêcher d'inventer des signes qui n'ont aucune assise historique.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://yataghene.net/images/tableau2.jpg"><img alt="tableau 2 : cliquer sur le tableau pour agrandir" border="0" src="http://yataghene.net/images/tableau2.jpg" height="361" width="252" /></a><span style="font-size: xx-small;">tableau 2 : cliquer sur le tableau pour agrandir</span><br />
<br />
Le schwa /e/ est une autre voyelle avec un statut très particulier. Est-ce que le schwa existe en berbère ? Pour répondre à cette question, il faudra au préalable définir ce que nous entendons par berbère. S'il s'agit de l'ensemble des parlers amazighs, la réponse dépendra alors du parler en question. Le schwa existe en kabyle et en rifain mais pas en chleuh [5]. Si par berbère, nous entendons l'inventaire phonologique commun à tous les parlers, la réponse est à l'évidence non. Aussi, si notre objectif est de dégager un système pan berbère, nous pouvons nous débarrasser de ce "lubrifiant phonétique" sans risque majeure. Le verbe "débarrasser" est employé à dessein. En effet, l'adoption du schwa poserait beaucoup plus de problèmes qu'elle apportera de solutions. D'abord, aucune tradition pré-néo-tifinagh n'a noté cette voyelle. Deuxièmement, le signe choisi part l'AB /÷/ désignait en libyque oriental et occidental les consonnes /R/ et /q/ (v. Tableau1.). S'ajoute à cela un autre handicap majeur. Le schwa, même au sein des parlers où il existe, n'a aucun statut phonologique et sa présence est très instable.<br />
<br />
Il y a bien évidemment d'autres aspects concernant la notation à base de tifinagh : l'emphase, l'assimilation, la labiovélarisation, l'état d'annexion. Mais ces aspects ne concernent pas uniquement le tifinagh. Ils doivent être traités quelle que soit la nature des caractères adoptés : arabes, latins ou amazighs. Nous reviendrons sur quelques uns de ces processus plus bas.<br />
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<br />
Nos remarques sur la notation en néo-tifinagh font suite à d’autres propositions établies par des linguistes et des chercheurs et doivent servir comme base de réflexion pour dégager un alphabet standard qui devra être utilisé pour écrire dans tous les parlers amazighs. Nous avons déjà soumis une grande partie de ces réflexions au "Comité provisoire pour la standardisation de l'alphabet amazigh", dont nous faisions partie. Malheureusement cette organisation n'a pas pu continuer ses travaux. Les objectifs qu'elle avait affichés restent donc toujours à l'ordre du jour.<br />
Déchiffrement de l'alphabet tifinagh sommaire comment lire et écrire en tifinagh<br />
<hr />
<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHIE<br />
<br />
AGHALI (M.) et Drouin (J.), 1973-79. - Recherches sur les tifinagh (1 et 2), GLECS. 18-23, pp. 245-272, 279-292.<br />
<br />
BASSET (A.), 1959. - Ecritures libyques et touarègue, Articles de dialectologie berbère, Paris, p. 167 - 175.<br />
<br />
BASSET (A.), 1969. - La langue berbère, Londres (1ère éd., 1952)<br />
<br />
CAMPS (G.), 1978. - Recherches sur les plus anciennes inscriptions lybiques de l'Afrique du Nord et du Sahara, Bulletin archéologique du C.T.H.S., n.s. 10-11, (1974-195), p. 143-166.<br />
<br />
CAMPS (G.), 1980. - Berbères aux marges de l'histoire, Ed. des Hespirides. pp. 275-278.<br />
<br />
CHABOT (J.B.), 1940. - Recueil des inscriptions libyques, Imprimerie Nationale, Paris.<br />
<br />
CHAFIQ (M.), 1993/94. - Initiation au tifinagh, in Tifinagh 1. pp 5-10.<br />
<br />
CHAKER (S.), 1972. - Libyque : épigraphie linguistique, Encyclopédie berbère (Aix-en-Provence), édit.prov., fasc.9.<br />
<br />
CHAKER (S.), 1977. - Une inscription libyque du Musée des Antiquités d'Alger, Libyca, p. 193-201.<br />
<br />
CHAKER (S.), 1984. - Textes en linguistique berbère, CNRS : Paris, pp. 246-258<br />
<br />
CHAKER (S.), 1989/1990. - Berbères aujourd'hui/Imazighen ass-a, Paris/alger. L'Harmattan /Bouchène.<br />
<br />
CHAKER (S.), 1994. - Pour une notation usuelle à base "Tifinagh". in Etudes et Documents Berbères, 11 : pp. 31-42.<br />
<br />
CLAUDOT (H.), 1985. - Tifinar'. Du brin à la plume, Dauphin, Atelier du triangle/aix, LAPMO, 16 p.<br />
<br />
CLAUDOT-HAWAD (H.), 1989. - Tifinar'. De la plume à l'imprimante. in Etudes et Documents Berbères, 6, pp. 187-190.<br />
<br />
CONINCK (J. de) et GALAND (L.), 1960. - Un essai des Kel-Antessar pour améliorer l'écriture touarègue, GLECS, VIII, pp. 78-83.<br />
<br />
ECHALLIER (J.C.), 1972.- Villages désertés et structures agraires anciennes du Touat-Gourara (Sahara-algérien), Paris, 142 p.<br />
<br />
FEVRIER (J.G.), 1956. - Que savons-nous du libyque ? Revue Africaine, 100, pp. 263-273.<br />
<br />
FEVRIER (J.G.), 1959. - Histoire de l'écriture, Paris ; " Ecritures libyques et ibériques ", pp. 321-332.<br />
<br />
FEVRIER (J.G.), 1964-1965. - "La constitution de la municipalité de Dougga à l'époque numide", Mélanges de Carthage offerts à<br />
Ch. Saumagne, L. Poinssot, M. Pinard, Paris, pp. 85-91.<br />
<br />
FOUCAULD (Ch. de), 1920, - Notes pour servir à un essai de grammaire touarègue, Alger.<br />
<br />
FOUCAULD (Ch. de), 1951, - Le dictionnaire Touareg-Français. Imprimerie Nationale. Paris. 4 volumes.<br />
<br />
GALAND (L.), 1957. - Inscriptions libyques R.I.L. 648, Journal Asiatique, CCXL/4, pp. 367-369.<br />
<br />
GALAND (L.), 1966. - Inscriptions libyques, in Inscriptions Antiques du Maroc, Paris, p. 1-79, XII pl.<br />
<br />
GALAND (L.), et SZYNERT (M.), 1970. - Une nouvelle inscription punico-libyque de Lixus, Semitica, XX, p. 5-16.<br />
<br />
GALAND (L.), 1973. - L'inscription libyco-berbère de Loma de Aaslib (Seguiet Elhamra), Amogaren, 4, p. 81-90.<br />
<br />
GALAND (L.), 1975. - L'épigraphie libyco-berbère, le déchiffrement des écritures et des langues, colloque du XXIXe congrès des Orientalistes, présenté par J. Leclant, Paris, p. 153-155.<br />
<br />
GSELL (St.), 1956. - Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, tome VI.<br />
<br />
HIGOUNET (Ch.), 1986. - "L'écriture", éd. Que sais-je ? PUF, Paris, p. 47-60.<br />
<br />
JODIN (A.), 1967. - Une nouvelle stèle libyque à Volubilis, Bulletin d'archéologie marocaine, VII, p. 603-606.<br />
<br />
KHETTOUCH (K.), 1996. - Origines des Tifinaghs ?, Tifinagh 9, p. 57-59.<br />
<br />
LAFUENTE (G.A.), 1957. - Le rôle du signe dans les inscriptions libyques, Revue Africaine, 101, p. 388-392.<br />
<br />
LETAN (R.), 1972. - Inscriptions libyques à Irhem de l'Anti-Atlas, Bulletin de la société d'histoire du Maroc, 4-5, p. 7-11.<br />
<br />
MARCY (G.), 1936. - Les inscriptions libyques bilingues de l'Afrique du Nord, Cahiers de la société asiatique, 5, Paris.<br />
<br />
MARCY (G.), 1938 a. - A propos du déchiffrement des inscriptions libyques, Alger.<br />
<br />
MARCY (G.), 1938 b. - Quelques inscriptions libyques de Tunisie, Hespéris, 25, pp. 289-365.<br />
<br />
MARCILLET-JAUBERT (J.), 1969. - Musée d'Alger : Inscriptions libyques, VIII, pp. 149-157.<br />
<br />
MUSSO (J.C.) et POYTO (R.), 1974. - Nouvelles stèles libyques de Grande Kabylie, Libyca, XVIII, p. 241-249.<br />
<br />
POYTO (R.) et ANOUNE (A.), 1973. - Inscriptions libyque, Libyca, 21.<br />
<br />
PRASSE (K.G.), 1972. - Manuel de grammaire touarègue (tahaggart), Copenhague, II, Ecriture, p. 145-161.<br />
<br />
REINE (M.), 1969. - Les gravures pariétales libyco-berbères de la haute vallée du Draaz, Antiquité Africaine (Paris), 3, p. 35-54.<br />
<br />
REYGASSE (M.), 1932. - Contribution à l'étude des gravures rupestres et inscriptions tifinagh su Sahara Central, Cinquantenaire de la Faculté des Lettres d'Alger, p. 437-534.<br />
<br />
TARRADELL (M.), 1966. - Contribution à l'Atlas archéologique du Maroc : région de Tétouan, Bulletin d'archéologie marocaine, VI, 425-443.<br />
Revues et Logiciels<br />
<br />
REVUE ASAGHEN - LIEN, n° 1. 1978. - Publication de l'Union du peuple amazigh.<br />
<br />
REVUE TIFINAGH, Revue de culture et de civilisation Maghrébine. Publiée à Rabat sous la dir. d'Ouzzin AHERDAN.<br />
<br />
TAFSUT, 1990. - n° 14 pour la proposition de S. Chaker.<br />
<br />
AFUS DEG WFUS. - Logiciel de Tifinagh développé par l'association portant le même nom.<br />
<br />
RIF 2000. Logiciel développé par Arabia Ware Benelux. Utrecht - Pays-Bas.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtAoyY77TWWOOI4YmVY_-OyXCQfs9bAkKrzWUclvhOLA2QjZarM-5iIZuwr3Z6XVnuQ3bmvet9l7mv7rw5fexLndqpNrDbRe46hQfp8_fLXLOO0orJLqEUXy72c5LeHBNZkohvXyKGTY7E/s1600/alphabet_tifinagh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtAoyY77TWWOOI4YmVY_-OyXCQfs9bAkKrzWUclvhOLA2QjZarM-5iIZuwr3Z6XVnuQ3bmvet9l7mv7rw5fexLndqpNrDbRe46hQfp8_fLXLOO0orJLqEUXy72c5LeHBNZkohvXyKGTY7E/s320/alphabet_tifinagh.jpg" width="254" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmu5OksD7e_TJ9fzGZmwQxnisWG1_o6Mtgre86vh2OEFd4DJHuNgUAXvynF7h4gGKkxHhHxkhEbT9CDd41MEClHyVHkFUTkGVL0T5eneJO8_0wzpeNafwNXRf0XEUPCE2k40ohTsWmhVyT/s1600/kasbah+13.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" l6="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmu5OksD7e_TJ9fzGZmwQxnisWG1_o6Mtgre86vh2OEFd4DJHuNgUAXvynF7h4gGKkxHhHxkhEbT9CDd41MEClHyVHkFUTkGVL0T5eneJO8_0wzpeNafwNXRf0XEUPCE2k40ohTsWmhVyT/s1600/kasbah+13.JPG" /></a><strong><span style="color: blue;">Who are the Berbers?</span></strong> <br />
Since time immemorial, North Africa has been inhabited by the indigenous people known as Imazighen*. These Berber populations, across northern Africa, have known a series of invasions and occupations that date back thousands of years, including those of the Phoenicians, the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantines, the Arabs, the Spanish, the Turks and the French. Despite ceaseless efforts by each colonizer to erase and eradicate this indigenous culture, the latter not only survived but also constitutes the foundation onto which the other cultural layers were added. In addition, North Africa has also benefited from centuries-long contact with the Andalusian culture in the north and the sub-Saharan civilizations in the south. The Berber culture stretches from Egypt’s Siwa oasis in the east to the Canary Islands in the West, and from the Mediterranean shores in the north to the desert plains of the Sahara. The Berbers, whose total population is estimated at 25 million, are principally concentrated in Morocco and Algeria, with significant communities also living today in Tunisia, Libya and Mauritania (see appended map, page 21). Their language (usually referred to as Tamazight) is composed of a number of varieties, all of which are derived from the Afro-asiatic linguistic family. Berber groups inhabiting coastal North Africa today identify themselves by the terms Kabyles, Riffis or Chenwas. Others, living further inland are known as Chawis, Siwis, Chleuhs, Mozabites and Tuaregs (in the Sahara Desert). Many Berbers today are Muslim (essentially Sunnis belonging to the Maliki madhhab). Prior to conversion to Islam in the 8th century the Berbers had polytheistic and animistic religious practices. <br />
World-renowned Berber authors from antiquity to our modern times, namely Saint Augustine, Tertullian, Apuleius, Arnobius, Franto, Saint Cyprian, Lactantius, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Battuta, Jean Amrouche, Kateb Yacine, Mouloud Mammeri, among others, have contributed immensely to world culture, but they are often inaccurately labeled in anthologies and history books as Roman, Arab, or French, depending on the period and the language they have used. In addition, until very recently, the Berber language (with its many dialects across North Africa) was not recognized as a national or official language in any of the countries where it was spoken and was not even allowed to be taught in schools. However, in both Morocco and Algeria the cultural status and historical importance of Berbers is now gradually being recognized by the governments of those countries.<br />
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<strong><span style="color: blue;">Why are Berber studies important?</span></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="color: blue;"></span></strong>Despite the recent emergence of Berber studies in North Africa and Europe as an important field of research and scholarship, academic focus on the Berber world is virtually absent in North America. No teaching or research programs devoted to Berber studies exist in any North American university today. For a number of years the University of California at Los Angeles offered a small-scale Berber studies program which was dependent on a single faculty member. However, since the retirement of Professor Tom Poncheon at UCLA, the only comprehensive teaching program in the United States devoted to the Berber world has vanished. Today, university courses focusing on Berber culture are few and far between, usually operating with marginal validation under the umbrella of either Middle Eastern Studies or Africana Studies departments. Given this dire situation, Oregon State University is committed to improving the presence of Berber studies in US institutions of higher education. <br />
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The paucity of teaching and research emphasis in the field of Berber Studies in the United States has, in part, contributed to current misunderstandings about the cultural personality of the entire North African region. Often confused with the Middle East and sometimes not well defined geographically, North Africa largely remains ignored and misunderstood, even among academics. Often categorized as the occidental fringe of the Arab world (the Maghreb), North Africa is rarely perceived from the vista of its Berber foundation. This foundation has profound genetic and biological roots: 60% of Moroccans are of Berber origin, as are 20% of Algerians. Many of North Africa’s Berbers do not primarily identify with Muslim civilization, nor are they necessarily drawn in any indigenous or even utilitarian way to Islam and Arabic, any more than they were to Catholicism and French. Often steering a course that avoided the dangerous waters of nationalism, and always accepting the cloak of multiple identities, Berber culture has been an ever prudent chameleon. In many ways it is because of this tenacity and modesty that it has simultaneously survived the torments of history and that it has not, heretofore, found its way into the university curriculum and into the mainstream of Western scholarship. In very practical terms, this means that an entire stratum of the Arab world (and specifically of the North African or Maghrebi world), remains on the educational sidelines. There is a need, therefore, to expand opportunities for teachers and researchers to gain a comprehension of the complexities of Berber North Africa. Berber culture is a well-worn, but necessary, key to both the understanding of the ancient Mediterranean basin and to the interpretation of the current dynamics of the Muslim sphere. It seems, particularly at this point in time, important to identify the cultural specificity of the Berber communities in Africa, and to disclose the potential importance of these communities in the dialog between Western and Mediterranean worlds.</div>
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For these reasons, it would be timely to give full consideration to the history and culture of Berber civilization, to trace its path from the earliest archeological evidence to its modern living form in the 21st century. A cultural exploration of Berber North Africa should include not only an understanding of its historical itinerary but also its contemporary nature revealed through cultural expressions such as literature, the plastic arts, crafts and music.<br />
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An NEH Summer Institute would constitute a first-time occasion for college and university teachers in the United States to be given the opportunity to consider the multiple dimensions of Berber North Africa. We propose to hold a four-week Institute at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon, that will convene 24 college and university teachers from a range of disciplines seeking to situate Berber studies in their undergraduate or graduate coursework. The Institute will draw on the expertise of some of the leading scholars in the area of Berber studies.<br />
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The foremost practical goal of this project is to expose scholars and college faculty to the hidden face of this Berber world. This exposure should be particularly germane to those scholars conducting research in the field in North Africa and to teachers seeking to integrate Berber culture into their curriculum. For this reason, it is anticipated that prospective applicants will have ethnology-related backgrounds in the following academic fields: art history, Islamic studies, anthropology, human geography, Mediterranean cultural history, French and Francophone studies, linguistics, religious studies, music, and film studies.<br />
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*<u><span style="color: purple;">Imazighen</span></u>The original name of the Berber people, meaning free men. Some activists prefer this name, as the word “Berber” is pejorative. It was derived from the term « barbari » that the Romans gave to the people they conquered.<br />
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